Scientific MethodSteps of the Scientific Method | | 1) Observation | | 2) Question | | 3) Hypothesis | | 4) Prediction | | 5) Experiment | | 6) Record and Analyze data |
Types of VariablesControlled Variable The variable that stays constant throughout the experiment | Independent Variable The variable that you are changing ( I-vary) | Dependent Variable The variable that responds to the changes from the independent variable | Negative Control Variable A control variable that does not result in any changes | Positive Control Variable A control variable that results in a change |
Single Blind v.s Double Blind ExperimentSingle-Blind When the participants of the experiment do not know which group they are in | Double-Blind When both the researcher and the participants do not know which group they are in | Why is this important? It helps eliminate bias in an experiment and help obtain honest results |
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Eukaryotic Cell Structure
PhospholipidsA phospholipid has 2 parts: 1) Polar region (hydrophilic) 2) Non-polar (hydrophobic) | Phospholipids form a bilayer in the membrane (phospholipid bilayer) |
Passive transport-> requires no energy -> Spontaneous movement of a substance across a membrane from an area high concentration to an area of low concentration (spreading out) ex: a ball rolls down a hill | -> Non-polar substances can dissolve through the non-polar lipid bilayer. -> (sex hormones, pesticides) -> Small, unchanged molecules: O2 & the CO2 |
Active transport-> REQUIRES AN INPUT OF ENERGY -> The movement of a substance across a membrane from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration -> LOWER CONCENTRATION TO HIGHER CONCENTRATION -> ex: we must work to roll the ball back uphill |
Active transport v.s Passive transportActive | Passive | Molecules need energy to move across the membrane ex: requires transport proteins | Molecules move spontaneously (no imput of energy) ex: Diffusion & Osmoisis |
What is excluded from passing the membrane? Ions (Ca2+, H+, Na+, Cl-) -> even though they are small, their charges cause them to be repelled by the hydrophobic tails of te membrane | Large polar molecules (gluclose & amino acids) cannot pass the hydrophilic tails of the membrane | Transport membranes help these molecules pass through the lipid bilayer -> Facilitated Diffusion: is when the passive movement of a substance with the help of membrane transport proteins: channels carriers |
Hydrophilic v.s HydrophobicHydrophilic | Hydrophobic | Attracts Water Molecules | Repels Water Molecules |
What is the monomer unit of a protein?
What is the main component of the plasma membrane?
MembraneWhat charateristic makes a membrane semi-permeable Substances move in & out of the cell through proteins or btwn phospholipids |
Characteristics of All Living things1) Are made up of 1 or more cells | 2) Can reproduce using DNA | 3) Obtain energy from the environment around them | 4) Able to grow & develop | 5) able to evolve as a group |
Prokaryotic v.s EukaryoticProkaryotic(Unicellular) The entire organism is made up of one cell This cell carries out all the functions for survival ex: Bacteria & Archea | Eukaryotic(Multicellualr) Are composed of many specialized cells working together ex: small plants and animals |
Prokaryotic v.s Eukaryotic
DNA v.s RNADNA -> deoxyribosose nucleic acid -> gene carry an ATCG code -> are the blueprint for protein molecules | RNA -> ribonucleic acid -> acts as a messenger carrying out orders from the DNA -> controls synthesis of protein -> The genetic code is AGCT |
Macromolecules comparison
Size Ranges of Biological Structure
Cell Structures; to real life exNucleus = Town Hall ( controls the cell) Golgi = USPS/ UPS (packages and delivers ER= Factories (make lipids/ Proteins Ribosomes = Factory workers (makes lipids proteins) Chloroplast= Solar Panel ( Captures light) Mitochondria = Power House ( Convert Energy) Lysosomes = break down bacteria and worn out (sanitation) Vacuoles = Break down bacteria etc.and store energy (sanitation) Cell membrane = to regulate what gets in and out of the cell (Bouncer ) Cytoskeleton = structures and movement of chromosomes (infrastructure of town/ highway) Cytoplasm = holds all the organelles together & cellular respiration (air) Vesicles = storage and move things around move proteins out of the cell ( mailman/ mail truck) |
Diffusion-> Diffusion= substances moving spontaneously -> Diffusion stops when the substance is equally distributed -Equilibrium -> There is no net movement of molecules, even though the molecules are still moving -> They are moving in a space at the same rate as they are leaving the space | What factors can affect the rate of diffusion? -> Temperature(heat/cold): Heat causes particles to move faster Cold slows down the movement of particles -> Size of particles: Small molecules will move faster than the large ones |
Osmosis-> is the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane -> Through polar, water molecules are small enough to weave through the lipid bilayer -> If a large amount of water is needed, the movement is done through a protein channel -Aquaporin | -> The diffusion of water across the membrane is PASSIVE -> NO INPUT OF ENERGY IS REQUIRED -> Water moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentreation -> Water moves from areas of low solute (salt,sugar) to high solute |
Solution types Isotonic = having the same/equal
Hypotonic = having a lower concentration of solute than the other solution{
Hypertonic = having higher osmotic pressure than the comparison solution
Intracellular v.s ExtracellularIntracellular: located Inside of the cell | Extracellular: located outside of the cell |
Producers v.s ConsumersProducer -> Plants obtain energy from the non-living part of the environment -> Autotrophs = Producers | Consumer -> Animals obtain energy from the living part of the environment Hetrotrophs =Consumers |
Linnean Hierarchy of Classification 8 category system
Top to bottom = Least specific to most
Bottom to the top = Most specific to least
4 Biological Molecules1) Proteins | 2) Lipids | 3) Carbohydrates | 4) Nucleic Acids |
Monomer v.s Polymer Monomer -> is any molecule that contains atleast 1 C-H bond ->Small Building Blocks | Polymer -> are small organic molecules that are used as repeating links together via covalent bonds to form a macromolecule (polymers) |
Dehydration Reaction v.s Hydrolysis Reaction Dehydration Reaction -> connects a monomer to another monomer or a polymer -> In a dehydration reaction the 2 reactants(monomer/polymer) contributes a part of the water molecule released in the reaction -> one contributes the -OH(hydroxyl group) & the other H (Hydrogen) -> Continuous reaction | Hydrolysis -> breaks down polymers into monomers The bond btwn the monomers attaching to one monomer and the hydroxyl attaching to the other monomer
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The Order of Making Protein
The Plasma Membrane-> Forms the external boundary of all types of cells -> Seperates the inside contents of the cell from the outside -> Controls communication and exchange of some materials | -> Is Selectively Permeable the membrane regulates the passage of materials -> Membrane allows some substances to pass through, more easily than others. -> Some molecules can enter and exit the cell freely Some molecules can pass under some circumstances -> Others have some trouble | Functions of a Plasma Membrane: -> They keep toxic substances out of the cell -> They contain receptors and channels that allow molecules such as ions, nutrients, waste, and metabolic product -> Regulates the transport of substances in and out of the cell -> Protects the cell by acting as a barrier |
4 Macromolecules Functions & ExamplesMacromolecules | Building Blocks | Functions | Examples | Lipids | Fatty acids & glycerol | to provide cells with long-term energy & make-up biological membranes | Fats, Phospholipids, waxes, oils, grease, steroids | Nucleic acids | Nucleotides | to store and pass on genetic info | DNA & RNA | Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides (simple sugars) | to provide cells with short term energy & source of fiber | Glucose, Sucrose, Starch, Cellulose, Chtin | Proteins | Amino Acids | to provide cell structure, send chemical signals, speed up chemical reactions, & more | Keratain(found in hair & nails), Hormones, Enzymes, Antibodies |
key role in cell communicationAnswer: The plasma membrane plays a key role in communication btwn cells & their environment |
Active Transport & Channels Ion Channels | Intergral pores that allow specific ions to get in/out of the cell | Transporters | Integral proteins that selectively move a polar substance/ion to one side of the membrane | Receptors | Integral proteins that serve as recognition sites. Each binds to a specific type of molecule | Ligand | A specific molecule that binds to a receptor | Enzymes | Intergral proteins that catalyze specific chemical reactions at the cell surface | Linkers | Intergral proteins that hold down proteins in the plasma membrane. Helps form structure of cells and link cells together |
Signal Transduction PathwayA series of steps linking a mechanical/chemical stimulus to a specific cellular response |
Local v.s Long Distance(animal cells)Local | Both | Long | | target only specific target cells recognize & respond to a given signal molecule | Panacrine Signaling | A secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator into extracellular fluid | Synaptic Signaling | A nerve cell releases nuerotransmitter molecules into a synapse stimulating the target cell | | | Hormonal Signaling | Specialized endocrine cells secrete hormones into body fluids, often blood Hormones may reach virtually all body cells |
Regulators Local Regulators: a secreted molecule that influences cells near where it was secreted | G-protein-coupled receptors: a signal receptor protein that responds to the binding of a signal molecule by activating a G-protein | Ion Channel receptors: a ligand-gated ion channel is a type of membrane receptor containing a region that can act as a "gate" when the receptor changes shape |
mono v.s di v.s poly (saccharides)
Amino Acid Monomers-> are organic molecules with carboxyl and an amino acid group | -> at the center of the small molecules is the carbon atom called " Alpha Carbon" | -> surrounded by amino group, carboxyl group, a hydrogen group with a "-R" group |
Protein Structure & Function-> A functional protein consists of 1 or more polypeptides | 3 Levels of Structure: 1) Primary Structure 2) Secondary Structure 3) Teritary Structure 4) Quaternary Structure | Primary Structure: is the proteins linear sequence Secondary Structure: is when polypeptide chains coil or fold to the backbone of the polypeptide interact and form bonds Teritiary Structure: happens through the interactions of the amino acids. Determines the overall shape of the polypeptide Quaternary Structure: is when 2 or more polypeptides combine (aggregate) |
Endomembrane System-> Nuclear Envelope | -> Endoplasmic Reticulum | -> Golgi Body | -> Lysosomes | -> Plasma Membranes | -> Vacuoles |
Plasma membraneWhat macromolecule makes up the majority of the plasma membrane of cells? A) Proteins B) Carbohydrates C) Lipids -->> Phospholipids D) Nucleic Acids |
Proteins and carbohydrates also compose the membrane |
Amphipathichaving both hydrophillic & hydrophobic parts |
Concentration Gradientoocurs when the concentration of particle in one area than another.s is higher |
Permeableallowing cells/ions to pass through |
Solution vocabSolvent: able to dissolve other solutions | Solution: a homogenous (balanced) mixture of solvent or solute molecules | Solute: is a substance that can be dissolved by a solvent to create a solution |
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