Scientific MethodSteps of the Scientific Method | | | 1) Observation | | | 2) Question | | | 3) Hypothesis | | | 4) Prediction | | | 5) Experiment | | | 6) Record and Analyze data |
Types of VariablesControlled Variable The variable that stays constant throughout the experiment | Independent Variable The variable that you are changing ( I-vary) | Dependent Variable The variable that responds to the changes from the independent variable | Negative Control Variable A control variable that does not result in any changes | Positive Control Variable A control variable that results in a change |
Single Blind v.s Double Blind ExperimentSingle-Blind When the participants of the experiment do not know which group they are in | Double-Blind When both the researcher and the participants do not know which group they are in | Why is this important? It helps eliminate bias in an experiment and help obtain honest results |
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Eukaryotic Cell Structure
PhospholipidsA phospholipid has 2 parts:
1) Polar region (hydrophilic)
2) Non-polar (hydrophobic) | Phospholipids form a bilayer in the membrane (phospholipid bilayer) |
Passive transport-> requires no energy
-> Spontaneous movement of a substance across a membrane from an area high concentration to an area of low concentration (spreading out)
ex: a ball rolls down a hill | -> Non-polar substances can dissolve through the non-polar lipid bilayer.
-> (sex hormones, pesticides)
-> Small, unchanged molecules: O2 & the CO2 |
Active transport-> REQUIRES AN INPUT OF ENERGY
-> The movement of a substance across a membrane from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration
-> LOWER CONCENTRATION TO HIGHER CONCENTRATION
-> ex: we must work to roll the ball back uphill |
Active transport v.s Passive transportActive | Passive | Molecules need energy to move across the membrane
ex: requires transport proteins | Molecules move spontaneously (no imput of energy)
ex: Diffusion & Osmoisis |
What is excluded from passing the membrane? Ions (Ca2+, H+, Na+, Cl-) -> even though they are small, their charges cause them to be repelled by the hydrophobic tails of te membrane | Large polar molecules (gluclose & amino acids) cannot pass the hydrophilic tails of the membrane | Transport membranes help these molecules pass through the lipid bilayer
-> Facilitated Diffusion: is when the passive movement of a substance with the help of membrane transport proteins: channels
carriers |
Hydrophilic v.s HydrophobicHydrophilic | Hydrophobic | Attracts Water Molecules | Repels Water Molecules |
What is the monomer unit of a protein?
What is the main component of the plasma membrane?
MembraneWhat charateristic makes a membrane semi-permeable Substances move in & out of the cell through proteins or btwn phospholipids |
Characteristics of All Living things1) Are made up of 1 or more cells | 2) Can reproduce using DNA | 3) Obtain energy from the environment around them | 4) Able to grow & develop | 5) able to evolve as a group |
Prokaryotic v.s EukaryoticProkaryotic(Unicellular) The entire organism is made up of one cell
This cell carries out all the functions for survival
ex: Bacteria & Archea | Eukaryotic(Multicellualr) Are composed of many specialized cells working together
ex: small plants and animals |
Prokaryotic v.s Eukaryotic
DNA v.s RNADNA -> deoxyribosose nucleic acid
-> gene carry an ATCG code
-> are the blueprint for protein molecules | RNA -> ribonucleic acid
-> acts as a messenger carrying out orders from the DNA
-> controls synthesis of protein
-> The genetic code is AGCT |
Macromolecules comparison
Size Ranges of Biological Structure
Cell Structures; to real life exNucleus = Town Hall ( controls the cell)
Golgi = USPS/ UPS (packages and delivers
ER= Factories (make lipids/ Proteins
Ribosomes = Factory workers (makes lipids proteins)
Chloroplast= Solar Panel ( Captures light)
Mitochondria = Power House ( Convert Energy)
Lysosomes = break down bacteria and worn out (sanitation)
Vacuoles = Break down bacteria etc.and store energy (sanitation)
Cell membrane = to regulate what gets in and out of the cell (Bouncer )
Cytoskeleton = structures and movement of chromosomes (infrastructure of town/ highway)
Cytoplasm = holds all the organelles together & cellular respiration (air)
Vesicles = storage and move things around move proteins out of the cell ( mailman/ mail truck) |
Diffusion-> Diffusion= substances moving spontaneously
-> Diffusion stops when the substance is equally distributed -Equilibrium
-> There is no net movement of molecules, even though the molecules are still moving
-> They are moving in a space at the same rate as they are leaving the space | What factors can affect the rate of diffusion?
-> Temperature(heat/cold): Heat causes particles to move faster
Cold slows down the movement of particles
-> Size of particles: Small molecules will move faster than the large ones |
Osmosis-> is the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
-> Through polar, water molecules are small enough to weave through the lipid bilayer
-> If a large amount of water is needed, the movement is done through a protein channel -Aquaporin | -> The diffusion of water across the membrane is PASSIVE
-> NO INPUT OF ENERGY IS REQUIRED
-> Water moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentreation
-> Water moves from areas of low solute (salt,sugar) to high solute |
Solution types Isotonic = having the same/equal
Hypotonic = having a lower concentration of solute than the other solution{
Hypertonic = having higher osmotic pressure than the comparison solution Intracellular v.s ExtracellularIntracellular: located Inside of the cell | Extracellular: located outside of the cell |
Producers v.s ConsumersProducer -> Plants obtain energy from the non-living part of the environment
-> Autotrophs = Producers | Consumer -> Animals obtain energy from the living part of the environment
Hetrotrophs =Consumers |
Linnean Hierarchy of Classification 8 category system
Top to bottom = Least specific to most
Bottom to the top = Most specific to least 4 Biological Molecules1) Proteins | 2) Lipids | 3) Carbohydrates | 4) Nucleic Acids |
Monomer v.s Polymer Monomer -> is any molecule that contains atleast 1 C-H bond
->Small Building Blocks | Polymer -> are small organic molecules that are used as repeating links together via covalent bonds to form a macromolecule (polymers) |
Dehydration Reaction v.s Hydrolysis Reaction Dehydration Reaction -> connects a monomer to another monomer or a polymer
-> In a dehydration reaction the 2 reactants(monomer/polymer) contributes a part of the water molecule released in the reaction
-> one contributes the -OH(hydroxyl group) & the other H (Hydrogen)
-> Continuous reaction | Hydrolysis -> breaks down polymers into monomers
The bond btwn the monomers attaching to one monomer and the hydroxyl attaching to the other monomer
|
The Order of Making Protein
The Plasma Membrane-> Forms the external boundary of all types of cells
-> Seperates the inside contents of the cell from the outside
-> Controls communication and exchange of some materials | -> Is Selectively Permeable
the membrane regulates the passage of materials
-> Membrane allows some substances to pass through, more easily than others.
-> Some molecules can enter and exit the cell freely
Some molecules can pass under some circumstances
-> Others have some trouble | Functions of a Plasma Membrane:
-> They keep toxic substances out of the cell
-> They contain receptors and channels that allow molecules such as ions, nutrients, waste, and metabolic product
-> Regulates the transport of substances in and out of the cell
-> Protects the cell by acting as a barrier |
4 Macromolecules Functions & ExamplesMacromolecules | Building Blocks | Functions | Examples | Lipids | Fatty acids & glycerol | to provide cells with long-term energy & make-up biological membranes | Fats, Phospholipids, waxes, oils, grease, steroids | Nucleic acids | Nucleotides | to store and pass on genetic info | DNA & RNA | Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides (simple sugars) | to provide cells with short term energy & source of fiber | Glucose, Sucrose, Starch, Cellulose, Chtin | Proteins | Amino Acids | to provide cell structure, send chemical signals, speed up chemical reactions, & more | Keratain(found in hair & nails), Hormones, Enzymes, Antibodies |
key role in cell communicationAnswer: The plasma membrane plays a key role in communication btwn cells & their environment |
Active Transport & Channels Ion Channels | Intergral pores that allow specific ions to get in/out of the cell | Transporters | Integral proteins that selectively move a polar substance/ion to one side of the membrane | Receptors | Integral proteins that serve as recognition sites. Each binds to a specific type of molecule | Ligand | A specific molecule that binds to a receptor | Enzymes | Intergral proteins that catalyze specific chemical reactions at the cell surface | Linkers | Intergral proteins that hold down proteins in the plasma membrane. Helps form structure of cells and link cells together |
Signal Transduction PathwayA series of steps linking a mechanical/chemical stimulus to a specific cellular response |
Local v.s Long Distance(animal cells)Local | Both | Long | | | target only specific target cells recognize & respond to a given signal molecule | Panacrine Signaling | A secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator into extracellular fluid | Synaptic Signaling | A nerve cell releases nuerotransmitter molecules into a synapse stimulating the target cell | | | | Hormonal Signaling | Specialized endocrine cells secrete hormones into body fluids, often blood Hormones may reach virtually all body cells |
Regulators Local Regulators: a secreted molecule that influences cells near where it was secreted | G-protein-coupled receptors: a signal receptor protein that responds to the binding of a signal molecule by activating a G-protein | Ion Channel receptors: a ligand-gated ion channel is a type of membrane receptor containing a region that can act as a "gate" when the receptor changes shape |
mono v.s di v.s poly (saccharides)
Amino Acid Monomers-> are organic molecules with carboxyl and an amino acid group | -> at the center of the small molecules is the carbon atom called " Alpha Carbon" | -> surrounded by amino group, carboxyl group, a hydrogen group with a "-R" group |
Protein Structure & Function-> A functional protein consists of 1 or more polypeptides | 3 Levels of Structure:
1) Primary Structure
2) Secondary Structure
3) Teritary Structure
4) Quaternary Structure | Primary Structure: is the proteins linear sequence
Secondary Structure: is when polypeptide chains coil or fold to the backbone of the polypeptide interact and form bonds
Teritiary Structure: happens through the interactions of the amino acids. Determines the overall shape of the polypeptide
Quaternary Structure: is when 2 or more polypeptides combine (aggregate) |
Endomembrane System-> Nuclear Envelope | -> Endoplasmic Reticulum | -> Golgi Body | -> Lysosomes | -> Plasma Membranes | -> Vacuoles |
Plasma membraneWhat macromolecule makes up the majority of the plasma membrane of cells? A) Proteins
B) Carbohydrates
C) Lipids -->> Phospholipids
D) Nucleic Acids | |
Proteins and carbohydrates also compose the membrane |
Amphipathichaving both hydrophillic & hydrophobic parts |
Concentration Gradientoocurs when the concentration of particle in one area than another.s is higher |
Permeableallowing cells/ions to pass through |
Solution vocabSolvent: able to dissolve other solutions | Solution: a homogenous (balanced) mixture of solvent or solute molecules | Solute: is a substance that can be dissolved by a solvent to create a solution |
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