How is Energy defined?
Energy is something you need to do work |
Law of Thermodynamics
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1st Law of Thermodynamics Energy can be transferred or transformed but neither created nor destroyed
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2nd Law of Thermodynamic Each energy transfer or transformation increases the disorder
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ATP
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What is ATP? Adenosine Triphosphate
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What kind of molecule is ATP? ATP is an energy storing molecule
Called the Cell's Energy Currency
Cells get energy from ATP
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What is ATP made of ? ATP is made out of adenine (nitogen base), ribose (sugar), and phosphate groups
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What happens when the bond breaks to the ATP? ATP loses 1 phosphate group
When it loses a phosphate group it turns into adenosine "Di" phosphate
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Stages of Cellular Respiration
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1st- Glycolosis -> Location: Cytoplasm
Splitting sugars in cytoplasm energy investment phase -> 2 ATP molecules combine with glucose molecule
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2nd- Oxidation -> Location:Inner membrane and inner membrane space of the mitochondria
Pyruvates move into the mitochondria through oxidation. pyruvates brolen into water
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3rd- Krebs Cycle -> Location:Matrix For every glucose, the cycle repeats 2x. The breakdown of pyruvic molecules --> carbon dioxide releases 2 ATPs in this stage
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4th -Electron Transport Chain -> Location: Inner membrane
Membrane bound carriers that transport electrons, produces 32 ATP's
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Where does it occur?
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Photosynthesis Chloroplast
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Cellular Respiration Mitochondria
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ATP vs ADP
ATP |
ADP |
Adenosine Triphosphate |
Adenosine Diphosphate |
ATP is a nucleotide found in cells |
ADP is a nucleotide which has a low amount of energy |
Made of 1 adenine, 1 ribose, and 3 phosphates |
Made out of 1 adenine, 1 ribose, and 2 phosphates |
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ADP is formed when ATP LOSES a phosphate |
Anabolic or Catabolic Pathway
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Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is an Anabolic Pathway because light energy from the sun is converted into glucose
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Cellular Respiration Cellular Respiration is Catabolic Pathway because organic molecules are broken down to release energy
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Oxidation Reduction Reactions Vocab
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Oxidation A reaction that REMOVES 1 or more electrons from a substance
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Reduction A reaction where electrons are GAINED by either removing oxygen, adding hydrogen, or the addition of electrons
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Oxidized When a molecule has LOST Electrons and that has increase its oxidation #
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Reduced When a molecule has GAINED electrons by losing an oxygen or gaining a hydrogen atom
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Oxidation-Reduction Reaction Any chemical change where 1 molecule LOSES electrons and the other molecule GAINS electrons
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Redox Reaction Any chemical change where 1 molecule becomes OXIDIZED loses electrons and the other molecule is REDUCED gains electrons
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Oxidizing Agent The molecule that GAINS electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction and is reduced
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Reducing Agent The molecule that has a potential to reduce another molecule
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Anode Where Oxidation takes place
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Cathode Where Reduction takes place
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How many chromosomes do humans have?
Stages of The Cell Cycle
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1st: Interphase This is the 1st stage of the cell cycle and occurs before mitosis.
During this phase the cell GROWS makes a copy of it DNA (the chromosomes are copied) and prepares to divide into 2 cells
The 2 structures that are being copied are cylinder shape and are called centrioles
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2nd:Prophase This is the 1st phase of Mitosis
During this phase the centrioles start to move to the opposite ends of the cell The spindle fibers start to form a bridge to connect the cells
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3rd:Metaphase This is the 2nd phase of Mitosis
During this phase, the chromosomes all line up down the middle of the cell
(The nucleus has now disappeared)
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4th: Anaphase This is the 3rd phase of Mitosis
During this phase the chromosomes pull apart from each other and move to the opposite sides of the cell
Thos process is caused by the split of the centromere of each chromosomes. These chromosomes have been pulled by spindle fibers, which has subsequently caused the cekk to stretch out
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5th: Telophase This is the 4th and Final Stage of Mitosis
During this phase new nuclear membranes form
a new nuclear envelope has also formed and the spindle fibers have disappeared. There are now 2 new nuclei
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6th: Cytokinesis This is the Final Stage of the Cell Cycle
(This phase occurs with Telophase)
This phase results in the cell spliting into 2 identical daughter cells. The 2 daughter cells both contain the same chromosome set and about half the organelles of the parents
There are differences in this phase of the animal cell & plant cells
Animal cells: The cell membranes squeezes together around the middle of the cell. The cytoplasm pinched into 2 cells. each daughter cell recieves about half the organelles of the parent cell
Plant Cells: A plant cell's rigid cell wall cannot squeeze together in the same way a cell membrane can
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Potential Energy vs Kinetic Energy
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Potential Energy Energy an object has due to its position or structure
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Kinetic Energy Energy an object has due to its motion
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Metabolism
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Metabolism All the chemical reactions in a cell
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Catabolism All the reactionns that break LARGE molecules into SMALLER ones
Energy is Transferred from food to a stored cellular form (downhill reactions))
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Anabolism All the reactions that build LARGE molecules from SMALLER ones
Energy is Required to build the molecule (uphill reactions)
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Competitive Inhibition Vs Non
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Competitive Inhibition The inhibitor copies the substrate and competes for the activation site of the enzyme
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Non-Competitive Inhibition The inhibitor binds to another area on the enzyme, alters the shaoe of the enzyme and prevents the active site from functioning
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How do Cells Regulate Enzymes?
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Regulation: -> The regulation of an enzyme may help to regulate metabolism
-> Turns off the genes that regulate enzyme activity
Regulate the enzyme activity once it is made
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Allosteric Regulation -> mimics non-competitive inhibition
-> Enzyme function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule at another site.
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2 Possible ways of Allosteric Inhibitor 1) Inhibitor binds to the allosteric site, blocks the active site and changes the shape of the entire enzyme
2) Inhibitor bind to the allosteric site and changes the shape of the active site
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Cellular Respiration
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What is the reaction (starting materials and products) for Cellular Respiration? |
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Glycolysis
Reactants Glucose
2 ATP molecules
2 NAD+
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Glycolysis
Products 2 Pyruvic Acid
2 ATP
2 NADH
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Citric Acid / Krebs Cycle
Reactants 2 Pyruvic Acid (produced by Glycolysis)
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Citric Acid / Krebs Cycle
Products 2 ATP
4 CO2
NADH and FADH2
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Electron Transport Chain
Reactants Oxygen and Energy Carriers
(produced by Glycolysis and the Citric Cycle)
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Electron Transport Chain
Products 32 ATP
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Light-Dependent Reactions
Reactants Light
Water
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Light-Dependent Reactions
Products ATP
NADPH
Oxygen
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Calvin Cycle
Reactants 6 CO2
6 ATP
6 NADPH
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Calvin Cycle
Products Glucose
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How is ATP Created?
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Photosynthesis ATP is made in light-dependent reactions through ATP synthase, chemiosmosis
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Cellular Respiration ATP is made in chemiosmoisis
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Formulas
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Balanced Chemical Photosynthesis 6 H2O + 6CO2 -- Sunlight-- C6 H12 O6 +6 O2
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Balanced Chemical Cellular Respiration 6 O2+ C6 H12 O6--Sunlight-- 6H2O + 6CO2 + ATP Energy
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The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Vocab
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Heredity The passing of traits from parents to offspring
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Gene A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes a specific trait
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Allele The different forms/variations of a gene
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Fertilization The process where the egg and sperm cell join to form an offspring
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Chromosome DNA condensed into a transportable form after it has replicated; since DNA is replicated, each chromosome contains 2 identical copies
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Chromatin Uncoiled strand of DNA wrapped around proteins called histones
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Sister Chromatid Identical copies of DNA attached to each other by the centromere
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Homologous Chromosomes A pair of chromosomes where 2 chromosomes are the same sixe and shape and they contain the same genes with each parent contributing 1 chromosome in each pair
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Centromere Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached
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Mitosis vs Meiosis
Mitosis |
1) Crossing Over
2) Pairing of Homologues
3) Number of Divisions
4) Number of Haploid Daughter Cells
5)Chromosome Number |
1
Stays the same |
Meiosis |
1) Crossing Over
2) Pairing of Homologues
3) Number of Divisions
4) Number of Haploid Daughter Cells
5)Chromosome Number |
2
4
1/2 |
Steps of Mitosis
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis |
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Free Energy
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Free Energy the amount of the systems energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout
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Exergonic Reactions A Release of free energy and is Spontaneous
G is negative
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Endergonic Reaction Absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is Non-spontaneous
G is positive
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Enzymes
Properties of an Enzyme: |
Recyclable
Are able to maintain their structures
Specific to a substrate
Lower Activation Energy |
What type of macromolecules are enzymes? |
Enzymes are protein macromolecules that act as catalysts |
...
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Electron Transport Chain -> 1st part of stage 3
-> Location: inner membrane
NADH and FADH2 are moved across the ETC to oxygen, the final electron acceptor. Proteins in ETC use energy from released electrons to shuttle H+ against the concentration gradient into the inner membrane space
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Chemosmosis -> Location: Inner membrane space, Inner membrane, Matrix
-> Energy from H+ concentration in inner membrane space drives H+ through ATP synthase, which activates catalytic sites that attach a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP
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What is the purpose?
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Photosynthesis To make food (Glucose) for a Plant Cell
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Cellular Respiration To release usable energy to power a cell
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What is needed?
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Reactants for Photosynthesis Light Energy
Carbon Dioxide (C02)
Water (H20)
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Products for Photosynthesis Glucose (C6 H12 O6)
Oxygen (O2)
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Reactants for Cellular Respirations Gluclose (C6 H12 O6)
Oxygen (O2)
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Products for Photosynthesis Usable Chemical Energy
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Water (H2O)
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What is?
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Substrate-level Phosphorylation In this process a phosphate group from a substrate molecule directly to ADP, forming ATP
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Oxidative Phosphorylation Final Stage in cellular respiration which the energy stored in electron carrier molecules is used to generate ATP
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Can Cellular Respiration aerobic or anaerobic?
Aerobic because it require oxygen |
Fate of Pyruvate
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Aerobic Conditions Pyruvate -> acetyl-coA -> Citric Acid Cycle
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Anarobic Conditions
Eukaryotic Cell Pyruvate -> Lactate/Lactic Acid
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Anarobic Conditions
Prokaryotic Cell Pyruvate -> Acetaldehyde -> Ethanol
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Photosystems
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Photosystems: An organized complex of chlorophyll,other pigments and proteins that rap light energy as exicted electrons
Plants have 2 linked photosystems in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts
Photosystem II passes an excited electron transport chain to Photosystem I to replace an exicted electron passed to NADPH. The electron lost from Photosystem II is replaced by the oxidation of water.
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Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration
How are Photosynthesis + Cellular Respiration related? |
Photosynthesis removes CO2 from the atmosphere and Cellular Respiration puts it back. Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere and Cellular Respiration uses that oxygen to release energy from food. |
Mitosis vs Meiosis
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Mitosis A process of Asexual Reproduction where the cell divides into 2 producing a replica with identical number of chromosomes in a haploid cell
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Meiosis A type of cellular respiration where the number of chromosomes are reduced by half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell
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Function of Mitosis Asexual Reproduction
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Function of Meiosis Sexual Reproduction
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Mitosis occurs in: All Organisms
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Meiosis occurs in: Humans, Animals, Plants, Fungi
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Mitosis is Genetically Identical
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Meiosis is Genetically Different (Genetic Variance)
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Which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replicate?
Interphase
DNA replicates during interphase. This provides each new daughter cell with a complete nucleus |
3 ways variability is achieved
1) Crossing Over & Recombination
2) Independent Segregation of Homologous Chromosomes
3) Random Assortment |
What is Spermatogenesis?
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Spermatogenesis The process when the seminiferous tubules of the testes produce sperm cells
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When does it occur? Puberty
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What does spermatogonia do? They divide continously via mitosis unitl puberty all their daughter cells become spermatogonia
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It remains at the basal lamina to maintain the germ cell line
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Steps of Meiosis
Interphase
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II |
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