Various endocrine organs and functions of each
Hypothalamus (control/integrator) |
releasing hormones to the anterior pituitary (blood communication) and direct connection to posterior pituitary (nerve communication) |
Pineal gland |
sleep |
Pituitary gland |
1st hormones to body organs |
Pancreas |
Insulin and glucagon |
Thyroid gland |
Parafollicular cells, high blood calcium, storage of calcium in bone |
Parathyroid gland |
low blood calcium, parathyroid hormone (pth), release calcium into blood from bone |
Pituitary gland
Adrenal glands |
stress response, blood pressure response, blood osmolarity, sex hormones |
Thyroid gland |
follicular cells, release thyroid hormone (t3 and t4) to increase metabolism and body temperature |
Mammary gland |
secretion of milk for offspring |
Testes |
make and release testosterone |
Ovaries |
make and release estrogen and progesterone |
Melanocytes |
makes melanin, protection from UV rays |
Ductus deferens |
orgasm response, semen |
Uterine and vaginal muscles |
orgasm response, childbirth |
Liver |
blood sugar regulation and storage, growth hormone signaling to muscle and bone |
Bone |
growth hormone cycle |
Muscle |
growth hormone cycle, glucose storage |
Kidneys |
water and blood pressure |
Steroid and non-steroid hormone mechanisms
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What are characteristics of steroid hormones? lipid so they enter the cell and go into the nucleus and target DNA to make new proteins
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What are characteristics of a non-steroid hormone? do not enter cell, interact with surface proteins -> secondary messenger internally in the cell to cause response (signaling cascade)
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T3T4 production for thyroid gland (hypothalamus)
Temp/metabolism feedback loop |
Low metabolism - low T3T4, low body temp |
TRH -> TSH -> follicular cells release the follicle containing T3 and T4 -> increase metabolism |
Thyroid Follicular Cells and Parafollicular Cells
Parafollicular |
High calcium |
Follicular |
Low metabolism (T3 and T4) |
Layers of Adrenal Gland
Cortex |
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Zona glomerulosa |
stress response - cortisol |
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Zona fasciculata |
low blood volume - aldosterone |
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Zona reticularis |
DHEA and androstenedione, precursors to sex hormones |
Medulla |
stress response - epinephrine and norepinephrine |
Basic Knowledge for Multiple Choice
Know the effects of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and how it regulates blood volume and blood pressure in detail |
Know how ACE inhibitors work |
Know how ADH works and how it regulates blood osmolarity and blood pressure |
Diabetes mellitus (I and II) effects on bg
Type I |
no production of insulin |
Type II |
we may or may not make insulin and body cells no longer respond to insulin - insulin resistance |
Insulin beta cells use glucose so we can't control high glucose levels |
Low levels can cause diabetic coma |
Endocrine Pathology
Hyperthyroidism |
High thyroid activity - weight loss, etc., cushing's syndrome, insomnia, hyperactivity |
Hypothyroidsim |
A lack of temp. control, weight gain, hair loss, lethargy, etc. |
Diabetes |
sugar in urine (sweet urine) |
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Insipidus |
Kidneys processing too quickly, water goes through too fast, excessive urination, dehydration |
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Mellitus |
insulin issues |
Endocrine System
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What are the similarities of the endocrine and nervous systems? Both control systems (homeostasis and other)
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What are some differences of the nervous and endocrine systems? Mode of communication (endo- hormones nerv- electrial signals)
Speed of response (endo- slow nerv- fast)
Duration of change/response (endo- longish term nerv- gone fast)
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Blood Glucose Feedback Loop
Stimulus |
Increased blood glucose |
Sensor/Integrator |
Pancreatic Beta cells |
Hormone Released |
Insulin |
Effector |
Liver and skeletal muscle |
Response |
Liver and skeletal muscle uptake glucose -> glycogen |
Result |
Decrease In blood glucose and return to homeostasis |
Growth Hormone Feedback Loop
Stimulus |
Low blood glucose, sleep, or stress |
Sensor/Integrator |
Hypothalamus |
Hormone Released |
GHRH |
Target |
Anterior Pituitary Somatotropes |
Hormone Released |
GH |
Effector |
Liver, bones, muscles, fat cells |
Response |
Increase blood glucose, cell growth and proliferation, bone length, muscle mass, lipolysis. Decrease glucose uptake |
Result |
Return to homeostatic blood glucose levels and growth and repair of the body |
Calcium Feedback Loop (High)
Stimulus |
Increased blood Ca2+ |
Sensor/Integrator |
Parafollicular cells in thyroid gland |
Hormone released |
Calctionin |
Effectors |
Osteoblasts |
Responses |
Osteoblasts activity increases = put calcium into bone |
Result |
Blood calcium level decreases back to normal |
Calcium Feedback Loop (Low)
Stimulus |
Decreased blood Ca2+ |
Sensor/Integrator |
Parathyroid glands |
Hormone released |
PTH |
Effectors |
Osteoclasts, kidneys, intestines |
Responses |
Osteoclasts degrade bone matrix which releases calcium into blood, kidney (reabsorb Ca) targets liver which releases Vit. D. Vit D to intestines absorb more calcium |
Result |
Calcium blood return to normal range |
Calcium Feedback Loop (Low)
Stimulus |
Decreased blood Ca2+ |
Sensor/Integrator |
Parathyroid glands |
Hormone released |
PTH |
Effectors |
Osteoclasts, kidneys, intestines |
Responses |
Osteoclasts degrade bone matrix which releases calcium into blood, kidney (reabsorb Ca) targets liver which releases Vit. D. Vit D to intestines absorb more calcium |
Result |
Calcium blood return to normal range |
Metabolism Feedback Loop
Stimulus |
Decrease in T3 and T4 concentrations |
Sensor/Integrator |
Chemo and temp receptors, Hypothalamus |
Hormone Released |
Hypothalamus releases TRH |
Target |
Anterior pituitary |
Hormone released |
TSH |
Target |
Thyroid gland (follicular cells) |
Hormone released |
Thyroid gland released T3 and T4 |
Effector |
Body tissues |
Response |
Increased metabolic activity |
Result |
Return to homeostatic body temperature, increase in energy |
Lymphatic System
What are characteristics of the lymphatic system? |
Vessels, nodes, and accessory organs filled with water like fluid |
What is the purpose of the lymphatic system? |
To return free fluid in the body back to the blood, houses and matures the WBC |
Function of Lymphatic sys. & Accessory
Vessels |
Vessels, trunks, ducts |
Absorption of interstitial fluid and transportation of lymph |
Nodes |
Structures that house and allow for storage of an maturation of lymphocytes |
Monitor lymph fluid for pathogens |
Thymus |
where T cells mature |
Spleen |
Were we send red blood cells to be recycled , storage of WBC |
Lacteals |
in the intestine microvilli fat absorption |
MALT |
nodules to monitor incoming solutes for pathogens, in mucosa |
Lymph Drainage
Right lymphatic duct |
right lymphatic vessels of the right facde, right neck, right arm, right axillary and cervical lymph nodes |
Left lymphatic duct aka thoracic duct |
All remaining lymph vessels and nodes of the upper body and the total lower body. Left cervical, left axillary, l+r iliac, l+r inguinal lymph nodes |
Role of the lymphatic sys. in immune response
House and mature many white blood cells, we transport WBC from tissues back into circulation, nodes monitor cells and pathogens that travel through |
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Erythrocyte recycling
Break down old RBC with the spleen and liver, dispose of bilirubin as bile, reuse iron to make new RBC |
Blood
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What are general characteristics of blood? Fluid, proteins, cells
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Functions of blood
Transportation |
Gases, nutrients, hormons, WBCs (immune response throughout the body) |
Blood recipient prob and erythroblastosis fetalis
Agglutination with the wrong type blood - destroy blood, death |
Mother is Rh- and has been exposed to positive blood/antigen, has made antibodies against Rh+, will attack fetus |
Clotting Disorders
Lack of platelet production = no clot = thrombocytopenia |
Hemophilia - genetic disorder that stops/lacks conversion of clotting factors |
Thrombus and Embolus
Thrombus |
Clot forming where it does not belong, usually in an artery with cholesterol crystal deposits |
Embolus |
Thrombus dislodging from the clot, can block a vessel somewhere else in the body, I.e. pulmonary embolus |
Steps of Hemostasis (basic steps)
Vascular spasms |
let a ton of blood in the area to provide platelets |
Platelet plug |
platelets start to stick together and adhere to endothelium and CT |
Coagulation |
1. Prothrombin activator released by damage
2.PA converts prothrombin into thrombin
3. Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin (insoluble - not dissolvable) |
Anemia and Polycythemia
Anemia |
low O2 to tissues |
Hemorrhagic anemia |
caused by blood loss |
Hemolytic anemia |
excessive RBC destruction with low hematopoiesis |
Aplastic anemia |
bone marrow is not functioning enough (during and after chemo) |
Iron deficient |
not enough iron to make hemoglobin |
Sickle Cell anemia |
inherited Hb mutation |
Polycythemia |
high RBC - blood is too viscous/thick dec. O2 delivery to tissues, lead to clots |
Components of blood and plasma
Plasma |
proteins (albumins [most abundant], globulins, fibrinogen), water, solutes (ions, waste, gases, regulation molecules/hormones) |
Formed elements |
cells and others |
Erythrocyte |
transportation of gases |
Leukocytes |
Immune response |
Platelets |
Blood clotting |
RBC Count
Low RBC |
Tired/lethargy, dizziness/light headedness, increased heart rate, headaches, shortness of breath, pale skin |
Extra RBC but not too high |
Blood doping, inc. O2 carrying capacity, decreases fatigue, inc. performance |
High RBC (low plasma - dehydration) |
Fatigue, shortness of breath, insomnia, itchy skin |
Hematocrit
% of formed elements specifically RBC |
Estimate of oxygen carrying capacity |
Hematopoiesis Feedback Loop
Stimulus |
Decreased O2 to tissues |
Sensor/intefrator |
Kidney |
Signal released |
Erythropoietin |
Effector |
Spongy bone - red bone marrow |
Response |
Make RBC |
Result |
Inc. delivery of O2 to tissues back to homeostasis |
Hematopoesis
Making of blood cells - differentiation of stem cells |
Myeloid stem cells (makes RBC, platelets, basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes). Lymphoid stem cells (lymphocytes) |
Red bone marrow |
in spongy bone |
Structure of Hb Subunits
Alpha chains x2 |
Beta chains x2 |
Each chain forms around an iron molecule (Fe) (1 Heme = chain + Fe) |
4 heme = hemoglobin |
1 heme carries 1 O2 |
1 hemoglobin - carries 4 O2 |
Hb binding affinity for O2 and CO2
Lungs |
pH - high pH -> inc. O2 affinity and binding |
Temp - cold -> inc. O2 affinity and binding |
Partial Pressure - lots of O2 -> inc. O2 affinity and binding |
Body tissues |
pH - low pH -> dec. O2 affinity and binding allow CO2 binding |
Temp - lots of metabolism inc. heat -> dec. O2 affinity and binding allow CO2 binding |
Partial Pressure - lots of CO2 -> dec. O2 affinity and bonding |
Facts for RBCs
About 44% of blood |
4-7million/mm3 in an adult |
Live for about 120 days |
Anucleate at maturity |
Purpose of RBC Shape
Biconcave |
increases surface area to increase diffusion fro transportation |
How does sickle cell anemia affect the shape? |
changes the surface area of the cell, changes the Hb folding, holding/transporting less material, the hook shape can get stuck together more easily causing clots |
Lymphocytes
B cells |
antibody making memory cells, pathogens we have come across before (bacteria, virus, etc.) |
T cells |
memory cells that target the cells or other pathogens that are foreign directly |
NK cells |
cancer killers, destroy abnormal cells |
Leukocytes
Neutrophils |
innate immunity, bacterial infection |
Lymphocytes |
adaptive immunity |
Monocytes |
innate immunity, but will follow b cell orders or antibody flags, macrophage, usually stay in peripheral tissues |
Eosinophils |
innate immunity, parasites |
Basophils |
damage identifying cells, increase inflammation and blood flow to damaged but not bleeding areas |
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