Various endocrine organs and functions of eachHypothalamus (control/integrator) | releasing hormones to the anterior pituitary (blood communication) and direct connection to posterior pituitary (nerve communication) | Pineal gland | sleep | Pituitary gland | 1st hormones to body organs | Pancreas | Insulin and glucagon | Thyroid gland | Parafollicular cells, high blood calcium, storage of calcium in bone | Parathyroid gland | low blood calcium, parathyroid hormone (pth), release calcium into blood from bone |
Pituitary glandAdrenal glands | stress response, blood pressure response, blood osmolarity, sex hormones | Thyroid gland | follicular cells, release thyroid hormone (t3 and t4) to increase metabolism and body temperature | Mammary gland | secretion of milk for offspring | Testes | make and release testosterone | Ovaries | make and release estrogen and progesterone | Melanocytes | makes melanin, protection from UV rays | Ductus deferens | orgasm response, semen | Uterine and vaginal muscles | orgasm response, childbirth | Liver | blood sugar regulation and storage, growth hormone signaling to muscle and bone | Bone | growth hormone cycle | Muscle | growth hormone cycle, glucose storage | Kidneys | water and blood pressure |
Steroid and non-steroid hormone mechanismsWhat are characteristics of steroid hormones? lipid so they enter the cell and go into the nucleus and target DNA to make new proteins | What are characteristics of a non-steroid hormone? do not enter cell, interact with surface proteins -> secondary messenger internally in the cell to cause response (signaling cascade) |
T3T4 production for thyroid gland (hypothalamus)Temp/metabolism feedback loop | Low metabolism - low T3T4, low body temp | TRH -> TSH -> follicular cells release the follicle containing T3 and T4 -> increase metabolism |
Thyroid Follicular Cells and Parafollicular CellsParafollicular | High calcium | Follicular | Low metabolism (T3 and T4) |
Layers of Adrenal GlandCortex | | | Zona glomerulosa | stress response - cortisol | | | Zona fasciculata | low blood volume - aldosterone | | | Zona reticularis | DHEA and androstenedione, precursors to sex hormones | Medulla | stress response - epinephrine and norepinephrine |
Basic Knowledge for Multiple ChoiceKnow the effects of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and how it regulates blood volume and blood pressure in detail | Know how ACE inhibitors work | Know how ADH works and how it regulates blood osmolarity and blood pressure |
Diabetes mellitus (I and II) effects on bgType I | no production of insulin | Type II | we may or may not make insulin and body cells no longer respond to insulin - insulin resistance | Insulin beta cells use glucose so we can't control high glucose levels | Low levels can cause diabetic coma |
Endocrine PathologyHyperthyroidism | High thyroid activity - weight loss, etc., cushing's syndrome, insomnia, hyperactivity | Hypothyroidsim | A lack of temp. control, weight gain, hair loss, lethargy, etc. | Diabetes | sugar in urine (sweet urine) | | | Insipidus | Kidneys processing too quickly, water goes through too fast, excessive urination, dehydration | | | Mellitus | insulin issues |
Endocrine SystemWhat are the similarities of the endocrine and nervous systems? Both control systems (homeostasis and other) | What are some differences of the nervous and endocrine systems? Mode of communication (endo- hormones nerv- electrial signals)
Speed of response (endo- slow nerv- fast)
Duration of change/response (endo- longish term nerv- gone fast) |
| | Blood Glucose Feedback LoopStimulus | Increased blood glucose | Sensor/Integrator | Pancreatic Beta cells | Hormone Released | Insulin | Effector | Liver and skeletal muscle | Response | Liver and skeletal muscle uptake glucose -> glycogen | Result | Decrease In blood glucose and return to homeostasis |
Growth Hormone Feedback LoopStimulus | Low blood glucose, sleep, or stress | Sensor/Integrator | Hypothalamus | Hormone Released | GHRH | Target | Anterior Pituitary Somatotropes | Hormone Released | GH | Effector | Liver, bones, muscles, fat cells | Response | Increase blood glucose, cell growth and proliferation, bone length, muscle mass, lipolysis. Decrease glucose uptake | Result | Return to homeostatic blood glucose levels and growth and repair of the body |
Calcium Feedback Loop (High)Stimulus | Increased blood Ca2+ | Sensor/Integrator | Parafollicular cells in thyroid gland | Hormone released | Calctionin | Effectors | Osteoblasts | Responses | Osteoblasts activity increases = put calcium into bone | Result | Blood calcium level decreases back to normal |
Calcium Feedback Loop (Low)Stimulus | Decreased blood Ca2+ | Sensor/Integrator | Parathyroid glands | Hormone released | PTH | Effectors | Osteoclasts, kidneys, intestines | Responses | Osteoclasts degrade bone matrix which releases calcium into blood, kidney (reabsorb Ca) targets liver which releases Vit. D. Vit D to intestines absorb more calcium | Result | Calcium blood return to normal range |
Calcium Feedback Loop (Low)Stimulus | Decreased blood Ca2+ | Sensor/Integrator | Parathyroid glands | Hormone released | PTH | Effectors | Osteoclasts, kidneys, intestines | Responses | Osteoclasts degrade bone matrix which releases calcium into blood, kidney (reabsorb Ca) targets liver which releases Vit. D. Vit D to intestines absorb more calcium | Result | Calcium blood return to normal range |
Metabolism Feedback LoopStimulus | Decrease in T3 and T4 concentrations | Sensor/Integrator | Chemo and temp receptors, Hypothalamus | Hormone Released | Hypothalamus releases TRH | Target | Anterior pituitary | Hormone released | TSH | Target | Thyroid gland (follicular cells) | Hormone released | Thyroid gland released T3 and T4 | Effector | Body tissues | Response | Increased metabolic activity | Result | Return to homeostatic body temperature, increase in energy |
Lymphatic SystemWhat are characteristics of the lymphatic system? | Vessels, nodes, and accessory organs filled with water like fluid | What is the purpose of the lymphatic system? | To return free fluid in the body back to the blood, houses and matures the WBC |
Function of Lymphatic sys. & AccessoryVessels | Vessels, trunks, ducts | Absorption of interstitial fluid and transportation of lymph | Nodes | Structures that house and allow for storage of an maturation of lymphocytes | Monitor lymph fluid for pathogens | Thymus | where T cells mature | Spleen | Were we send red blood cells to be recycled , storage of WBC | Lacteals | in the intestine microvilli fat absorption | MALT | nodules to monitor incoming solutes for pathogens, in mucosa |
Lymph DrainageRight lymphatic duct | right lymphatic vessels of the right facde, right neck, right arm, right axillary and cervical lymph nodes | Left lymphatic duct aka thoracic duct | All remaining lymph vessels and nodes of the upper body and the total lower body. Left cervical, left axillary, l+r iliac, l+r inguinal lymph nodes |
Role of the lymphatic sys. in immune responseHouse and mature many white blood cells, we transport WBC from tissues back into circulation, nodes monitor cells and pathogens that travel through |
| | Erythrocyte recyclingBreak down old RBC with the spleen and liver, dispose of bilirubin as bile, reuse iron to make new RBC |
BloodWhat are general characteristics of blood? Fluid, proteins, cells |
Functions of bloodTransportation | Gases, nutrients, hormons, WBCs (immune response throughout the body) |
Blood recipient prob and erythroblastosis fetalisAgglutination with the wrong type blood - destroy blood, death | Mother is Rh- and has been exposed to positive blood/antigen, has made antibodies against Rh+, will attack fetus |
Clotting DisordersLack of platelet production = no clot = thrombocytopenia | Hemophilia - genetic disorder that stops/lacks conversion of clotting factors |
Thrombus and EmbolusThrombus | Clot forming where it does not belong, usually in an artery with cholesterol crystal deposits | Embolus | Thrombus dislodging from the clot, can block a vessel somewhere else in the body, I.e. pulmonary embolus |
Steps of Hemostasis (basic steps)Vascular spasms | let a ton of blood in the area to provide platelets | Platelet plug | platelets start to stick together and adhere to endothelium and CT | Coagulation | 1. Prothrombin activator released by damage
2.PA converts prothrombin into thrombin
3. Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin (insoluble - not dissolvable) |
Anemia and PolycythemiaAnemia | low O2 to tissues | Hemorrhagic anemia | caused by blood loss | Hemolytic anemia | excessive RBC destruction with low hematopoiesis | Aplastic anemia | bone marrow is not functioning enough (during and after chemo) | Iron deficient | not enough iron to make hemoglobin | Sickle Cell anemia | inherited Hb mutation | Polycythemia | high RBC - blood is too viscous/thick dec. O2 delivery to tissues, lead to clots |
Components of blood and plasmaPlasma | proteins (albumins [most abundant], globulins, fibrinogen), water, solutes (ions, waste, gases, regulation molecules/hormones) | Formed elements | cells and others | Erythrocyte | transportation of gases | Leukocytes | Immune response | Platelets | Blood clotting |
RBC CountLow RBC | Tired/lethargy, dizziness/light headedness, increased heart rate, headaches, shortness of breath, pale skin | Extra RBC but not too high | Blood doping, inc. O2 carrying capacity, decreases fatigue, inc. performance | High RBC (low plasma - dehydration) | Fatigue, shortness of breath, insomnia, itchy skin |
Hematocrit% of formed elements specifically RBC | Estimate of oxygen carrying capacity |
Hematopoiesis Feedback LoopStimulus | Decreased O2 to tissues | Sensor/intefrator | Kidney | Signal released | Erythropoietin | Effector | Spongy bone - red bone marrow | Response | Make RBC | Result | Inc. delivery of O2 to tissues back to homeostasis |
HematopoesisMaking of blood cells - differentiation of stem cells | Myeloid stem cells (makes RBC, platelets, basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes). Lymphoid stem cells (lymphocytes) | Red bone marrow | in spongy bone |
Structure of Hb SubunitsAlpha chains x2 | Beta chains x2 | Each chain forms around an iron molecule (Fe) (1 Heme = chain + Fe) | 4 heme = hemoglobin | 1 heme carries 1 O2 | 1 hemoglobin - carries 4 O2 |
Hb binding affinity for O2 and CO2Lungs | pH - high pH -> inc. O2 affinity and binding | Temp - cold -> inc. O2 affinity and binding | Partial Pressure - lots of O2 -> inc. O2 affinity and binding | Body tissues | pH - low pH -> dec. O2 affinity and binding allow CO2 binding | Temp - lots of metabolism inc. heat -> dec. O2 affinity and binding allow CO2 binding | Partial Pressure - lots of CO2 -> dec. O2 affinity and bonding |
Facts for RBCsAbout 44% of blood | 4-7million/mm3 in an adult | Live for about 120 days | Anucleate at maturity |
Purpose of RBC ShapeBiconcave | increases surface area to increase diffusion fro transportation | How does sickle cell anemia affect the shape? | changes the surface area of the cell, changes the Hb folding, holding/transporting less material, the hook shape can get stuck together more easily causing clots |
LymphocytesB cells | antibody making memory cells, pathogens we have come across before (bacteria, virus, etc.) | T cells | memory cells that target the cells or other pathogens that are foreign directly | NK cells | cancer killers, destroy abnormal cells |
LeukocytesNeutrophils | innate immunity, bacterial infection | Lymphocytes | adaptive immunity | Monocytes | innate immunity, but will follow b cell orders or antibody flags, macrophage, usually stay in peripheral tissues | Eosinophils | innate immunity, parasites | Basophils | damage identifying cells, increase inflammation and blood flow to damaged but not bleeding areas |
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