Fill in phases of cell cycleG0 | most cells that will no longer divide | G1 phase | restriction point | S phase | chromosomes duplicate | prophase | mitotic spindle begin to form | prophase | chromosomes become visible | pro metaphase | kinetochore-microtubule interactions move chromosomes to midline | metaphase | chromosomes line up at central plate | anaphase | sister chromosome separate and chromosomes move apart | telophase | nuclear membranes form around separated chromosomes | cytokinesis | cell plate forms or cleavage furrow pinches cells apart |
Probabilities of Genotype (example)Cross | Offspring | Probability | AAbb X AaBb | AAbb | 1/4 | AaBB X AaBb | aaBB | 1/8 | AABbcc X aabbCC | AaBbCc | 1/2 | AaBbCc X AaBbcc | aabbcc | 1/32 |
Blood Groups of Man who could not be the fatherChild | Mother | Man | AB | A | no groups exonerated | O | B | A or O | A | AB | A or O | O | O | AB only | B | A | B or O |
Steps of transcriptionInitiation | Transcription factors bind to promoter and facilitate the binding of RNA polymerase II, forming a transcription initiation complex; RNA polymerase II separates DNA strands and RNA synthesis begins at the start point. | Elongation | RNA polymerase II moves along the DNA strand, connecting RNA nucleotides that have paired to the DNA template to the 3' end of the growing RNA strand | Termination | After polymerase transcribes past a polyadenylation signal sequence, the pre-mRNA is cut a released. |
| | Phases of cell cycleInterphase | 90% of cell cycle; growth and DNA replication | G1 phase | Chromosome consists of a long thin chromatin fiber made of DNA and associated proteins; growth and metabolic activities occur. | S phase | Synthesis of DNA. Chromosome is duplicated; two exact copies (sister chromatids) are produced and held together tightly at their centromeres and by cohesions along with their length; growth and metabolic activities continue. | G2 phase | Growth and metabolism continue | Mitotic phase | Cell division occurs | Prophase | The sister chromatids, held together by sister chromatid cohesion, become coiled and tightly condensed. | Prometaphase | Kinetochore fibers from opposite ends of the mitotic spindle attach to the kinetochores of the sister chromatids; the chromosomes move towards midline. | Metaphase | The centromere of the chromosome is aligned at the metaphase plate along with the centromeres of the other chromosomes. | Anaphase | Cohesins are cleaved and the sister chromatids separate (now considered individual chromosomes) and move to opposite poles of the cell. | Telophase | Chromatin fiber of the chromosome uncoils and is surrounded by reforming nuclear membrane. |
Processes of transcription and translation| | Transcription | Translation | Template | DNA | RNA | Location | nucleus (cytoplasm in prokaryotes) | cytoplasm; ribosomes can be free or attached to ER | Molecules involved | RNA nucleotides, DNA template strand, RNA polymerase, transcription factors | amino acids, tRNA, mRNA, ribosomes, ATP, GTP, enzymes, initiation, elongation, and release factors. | Enzymes involved | RNA polymerase, spliceosomes | aminoacytl-tRNA synthetase, ribosomal enzymes (ribozymes) | Control- start and stop | transcription factors locate promoter region with TATA box and start point, polyadenylation signal sequence to stop | initiation factors, initiation sequence (AUG), stop codons, release factor | Product | primary transcript (pre-mRNA) | polypeptide | Product processing | RNA processing: 5' cap and poly-A tail, splicing of pre-mRNA, introns removed by spliceosomes. | spontaneous folding, disulfide bridges, signal peptide removed, cleaving, quaternary structure, modification with sugars, etc. |
Key events of meiosisInterphase | Chromosome duplication; sister chromatids attached at centromere and by sister chromatids cohesion along their lengths. | Prophase I | Chromosomes condense. Synapsis of homologous pairs (held by synaptonemal complex); crossing over (exchange of corresponding DNA segments) is evident at chiasmata. | Metaphase I | Homologous pairs line up independently at metaphase plate (orientation of maternal and paternal homologs is random). | Anaphase I | Homologous pairs of chromosomes separate and homologs move toward opposite poles; sister chromosomes remain attached at centromere. | Metaphase II | Haploid set of chromosomes, each consisting of 2 sister chromatids, aligns at metaphase plate; sister chromatids not identical due to crossing over. | Anaphase II | Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles as individual chromosomes. |
Levels of metaphase chromosome packing1. Nucleosomes (10-nm fiber of nucleosomes and linker DNA) | 2. 30-nm fiber | 3. Looped domains (300-nm fiber) | 4. coiling and folding of looped domains into highly condenses metaphase chromosome. |
DNA sequence infoTypes of DNA | Description | % | Exons or rRNA/t-RNA coding | Protein and RNA coding sequences | 1.5 | Introns | noncoding sequences with genes | 20 | Regulatory sequences | enhancers, promoters, and other such sequences | 5 | Transposable elements and related sequences | multiple copies of mostly movable sequences | 44 | Alu elements | family of short sequences related to transposable elements | 10 | L1 sequences | retrotransposons found in introns of most genes | 17 | Unique noncoding DNA | gene fragments and psuedogenes | 15 | Large-segment duplications | multiple copies of large sequences | 5-6 | Simple sequence DNA | DNA centromeres and telomeres, also STRs | 3 |
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