PeopleAlbert Bandura | Added a cognitive slant to behaviorism by researching violence and aggression | B.F. Skinner | Believed that internal mental events could only be studied scientifically or not at all; Skinner box | Carl Rogers | Developed person-centered therapy | Charles Darwin | Theory of natural selection and said desirable traits are passed on | David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel | Identified specialized types of cells and that individual cells are more sensitive to complex stimuli | Ernest Hilgard | Hypnosis causes dissociation in consciousness | Gustav Fechner | Published research on the absolute threshold of humans | Herman von Helmholtz | Created place theory | J. Allan Hobson | Said dreams are side effects of neural activation | John Watson | Founder of behaviorism | Leta Stetter Hollingworth | Focused on children with high IQs | Linda Bastoshuk | Leading authority in taste research | Margaret Washburn | Second female president of APA and wrote "The Animal Mind" which helped behaviorism emerge | Mary Calkins | First female president of APA and founded 1/12 psychology labs in the U.S. | Max Wertheimer | Discovered phi phenomenon | Neal Miller | Conducted studies to show that animals could be used for testing | Robert Rosenthal | Said experimental bias could lead to influence on subject's behavior | Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga | Studied split-brain to see what makes the hemispheres unique | Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall | Gate-control theory | Rosalind Cartwright | We tend to dream about problems in our lives | Sigmund Freud | Founder of psychoanalysis and coined the term unconscious; Said we dream to fulfill tasks | Stanley Hall | Created APA and first psychological research lab at Johns Hopkins | Wilhelm Wundt | German professor who created a campaign promoting psychology to become its own field of study | William James | Founder of functionalism; said we have a stream of consciousness in which ideas flow |
GeneticsChromosome | Strands of DNA that carry genetic information | Dominant gene | Gene expressed in a heterozygous condition | Genes | DNA segments that serve as key functional units in genetic transfer | Genetic Mapping | Determines location and sequence of specific genes | Genotype | One's genetic makeup | Fraternal Twins | Two eggs fertilized by different sperm cells | Heterozygous | One dominant and one recessive allele | Homozygous | Both alleles are either dominant or recessive | Identical Twins | Results from a zygote splitting | Natural Selection | Favorable genes will be passed through generations | Phenotype | Expression of one's genotype | Polygenic Traits | Characteristic influenced by more than one gene | Recessive Gene | Gene not expressed in a heterozygous condition | Zygote | Single cell formed by union of sperm and egg |
Body Scans/TestsElectrical Stimulation | Sends weak electrical currents into brain structure to activate it | Electroencephalograph (EEG) | Monitors electrical activity in brain over time with electrodes attached to scalp | Electromyograph | Records muscular activity | Electrooculograph | Records eye movement | Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation | Enhances or depresses parts of the brain |
Parts of BrainBrain Plasticity | Brain is more plastic than assumed | Broca's Area | Controls the production of speech | Cerebral Cortex | Folded outer layer of cerebrum | Cerebral Hemispheres | Left and right halves of cerebrum | Corpus Callosum | Connects both cerebral hemispheres | Forebrain | emotional and complex thought; Largest and most complex part of brain | Frontal Lobe | Largest human lobe; controls muscle movement | Hindbrain | vital functions; Includes cerebellum, medulla, and pons | Left Hemisphere | Verbal processing, language, speech, reading, writing, sequential | Midbrain | sensory functions; Part of brain stem between hindbrain and forebrain | Occipital Lobe | Location of visual processing | Parietal Lobe | Registers sense of touch, phantom limb | Right Hemisphere | Nonverbal processing, spatial, musical, visual recognition, parallel | Temporal Lobe | Controls auditory processing along with speech and language comprehension | Wernicke's Area | Controls the comprehension of a language |
Ear PartsAmplitude | Loudness | Basilar Membrane | Runs through center of cochlea and has auditory receptors | Cochlea | Coiled tunnel filled with fluid that has hearing receptors | External ear (pinna) | Collects sound | Ossicles | Hammer, anvil, stirrup (tinniest bones in body) | Purity | Timbre | Semicircular Canals | Passage inside ear that maintains equilibrium | Wavelength | Pitch |
| | Types of psychologstsPsychologist | Dedicated to investigating human behavior in a scientific way | Clinical Psychologist | Studies and deals with mentally ill patients | Psychiatrist | Diagnoses and treats psychological disorders | Counseling Psychologist | Deals with people's every day problems of modern severity |
Research MethodsDouble-blind | Experimenters nor subjects know the hypothesis | Case Study | In-depth investigation on an individual or topic | Experiment | Manipulating a variable under controlled conditions and. observing changes in a second variable | Naturalistic Observation | Conducted be observing others in their natural environment | Quasi-Experiment | Individuals chosen for a study have an equal chance of being in the control or experimental group |
APA GuidelinesAnonymity | Not collecting a person's name during a study | Confidentiality | Not releasing any specific response sources | Debriefing | Subjects are told the truth of an experiment after being lied to | Informed Consent | Allowing participants to choose whether or not they want to be in the study after being told about it | Random Assignment | Assigning individuals from the sample into the experimental or control group without bias | Random Sample | Sample of people chosen for an experiment without bias | Random Selection | Choosing members of a population with no bias that accurately represents that population |
Ways to Represent DataCorrelation | Relationship between two variables | Correlation Coefficient | Degree of relationship between two variables (-1 to 1) | Frequency Distribution | Indicates how often an observation or number occurs | Histogram | A bar graph | Mean | The average of all numbers in a data set | Median | The number that lies in the middle of a data set when ordered from least to greatest | Mode | The number that appears most often in a set of data | Normal Curve | Bell-shaped curve where the average score lies in the middle | Range | Largest number- smallest number | Scatterplot | Graph of points showing relationship between the x and y axis | Standard Deviation | Average distance from the mean in a data set | Statistical Significance | Probability that data collected from an experiment are due to chance |
Nervous System SubsystemsAutonomic Nervous System | Nerves connecting to heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glandsd | Central Nervous System | Brain and spinal cord | Parasympathetic Nervous System | Autonomic nervous system subset that conserves resources (rest and digest) | Peripheral Nervous System | Nerves that lie outside CNS | Somatic Nervous System | Nerves that connect voluntary skeletal muscles to sensory receptors | Sympathetic Nervous System | Autonomic nervous system subset that deals with emergency body resources (fight or flight) |
Nervous System Subsets Diagram
GlandsAdrenal | Salt and carbs metabolism | Gonads | Sex hormones | Pancreas | Sugar metabolism (insulin) | Pituitary | Master gland; secretes growth hormones | Thyroid | Metabolic rate |
Eye PartsCones | Visual receptors that help in daylight and seeing colors | Blind Spot | Hole in retina where nerve fibers exit; image that falls on it isn't visible | Feature Detectors | Neurons that respond to very specific features of more complex stimuli | Fovea | Tiny spots in center of retina where visual acuity is at its greatest; only has cones | Lens | Transparent eye structure that focuses light rays falling on retine | Optic Chiasm | Where optic nerves cross | Optic Disk | Hole in retina where optic nerves exit eye | Optic Nerve | Axons that connect eye to brain | Photoreceptor | Rods and cones | Pupil | Opening in iris that allows light to pass to back of eyes | Retina | Neural tissue at back of eye that absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to brain | Rods | Visual receptors that help with night vision, peripheral vision, and black and white images |
Stages of Sleep1 | Lightest stage; theta waves; 4-7 waves on screen; 1-7 minutes | 2 | Slow waves; all waves; spikes on screen; slower heart rate; 10-25 minutes | 3&4 | Deep and slow waves; delta waves; slow/long waves; longest NREM stage | REM | Waves similar to awake ones; beta waves; dreaming; rapid eye movement; fast breathing; no control |
| | ApproachesBehavioral | Study of observable reactions | Biological | Behavior controlled by physiological aspects | Cognitive | The way that the world is viewed determines one's behavior | Cross-cultural | Focuses on filling the data gap between white males and minorities | Eclectic | Treatment approach varies on the client's problem | Evolutionary | Views behaviors as human adaption | Functionalism | Focuses on purpose of consciousness | Humanistic | Emphasizes human qualities and potential | Psychoanalytic | Addresses internal motivations and unsconcious thoughts that affect one's behavior | Structualism | Analyzes consciousness in elements and their relationship |
Parts of an ExperimentConfounding Variable | Two independent variables in an experiment | Control Group | Group that does not receive special treatment | Dependent Variable | Variable affected when the independent variable is altered | Experimental Group | Group that receives special treatment | Extraneous Variable | Outside variable that influences the dependent variable | Hypothesis | Prediction of what the data will prove at the end of an experiment | Independent Variable | Event or condition manipulated in order to evoke change in the dependent variable | Operational Definition | Specific definition of the measures of the variables in an experiment | Subject/Participant | People or animals observed in a study |
Neuron PartsAction Potential | Shift in neuron's electrical charge that travels along axon | Afferent Nerve Fibers | Carry information inwards to CNS | Axon | Long fiber that transmits signals way from soma to other cells | Dendrites | Receives information | Efferent Nerve Fibers | Carry information outwards from CNS | Glia | Provide support for neurons | Mylein Sheath | Insulates axons to speed up signal transmissions | Resting Potential | Neuron is stable, negatively charged, and inactive | Reuptake | Neurotransmitters sponged from synaptic cleft by presynaptic membrane | Soma | Cell body which contains the nucleus and main cell parts | Synapse/ Synaptic Cleft | Gap between terminal button of a neuron and cell membrane of another | Terminal Buttons | Secretes chemicals |
DrugsAlcohol | Beverages containing ethyl alcohol (ex. vodka, rum, beer, whiskey) | Cannabis | Plant that makes weed, THC, and hashish | MDMA | Related to amphetamines, hallucinogens, and mescaline (ex. adulterants, ecstasy, caffeine, heroine) | Narcotics | Opiates; relieve pain (Ex. opium, heroin, codeine, oxycodone) | Opiates | Narcotics; relieve pain (ex. same as narcotics) | Psychoactive Drugs | Modify mental, emotional, and behavioral functions | Sedatives | Sleep-inducting drugs that decrease CNS function and behaviors (ex. sleeping pills) | Stimulants | Increase CNS activation and behaviors (Ex. Cocaine, meth, adderal) |
Perception PhenomenonsAbsolute Threshold | Minimum stimulus that can be detected | Additive Color Mixing | More light in a mix than exists in any one light | Afterimage | Visual image that persists after stimulus is removed | Binocular Depth Cues | Clues about distance based on differing views of two eyes | Convergence | Eyes go inward when looking at a close-up object | Dark Adaptation | Eyes become sensitive to light with little light present | Feature Analysis | Detecting specifics in a visual input and putting them in a more complex form | Habituation | Tendency to have a decreased response to something | Impossible Figures | Objects that can be represented in 2D but not 3D | Inattentional Bias | Failure to see visible things because attention is focused | Just Noticeable Difference | Smallest difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected | Light Adaptation | Eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination | Monocular Depth Cues | Ability to judge distance with one eye | Motion Parallex | Closer things more quicker than further items | Parallel Processing | Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously | Perceptual Constancy | Tendency to experience a stable perception when something is changing | Perceptual Set | Readiness to perceive a certain stimuli in a particular way | Phi Phenomenon | Moving illusion done by presenting visual stimuli in rapid order | Retina Disparity | Objects within 25ft look slightly different if one eye is covered | Reversible Figure | Drawing that can go back and forth with interpretations | Sensory Adaptation | Gradual decline in sensitivity because of prolonged stimulation | Subliminal Perception | Registration of sensory input without being aware | Subtractive Color Mixing | Removing wavelengths to make a color darker |
Sleep Phenomenons/ DisordersInsomnia | Chronic problems getting adequate sleep | Latent Content | Hidden meaning of a dream | Lucid Dreams | People thinking clearly while in a dream and walking through life | Manifest Content | Plot of a dream, the literal plot | Night Terrors | Abrupt awakenings from NREM with panic | Nightmares | Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to people waking up from REM | REM Sleep Behavior Disorder | Acting out while one is asleep | Sleep Apnea | Reflexive gasps for air that wake people up | Somnambulism | Sleepwalking |
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