People
Albert Bandura |
Added a cognitive slant to behaviorism by researching violence and aggression |
B.F. Skinner |
Believed that internal mental events could only be studied scientifically or not at all; Skinner box |
Carl Rogers |
Developed person-centered therapy |
Charles Darwin |
Theory of natural selection and said desirable traits are passed on |
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel |
Identified specialized types of cells and that individual cells are more sensitive to complex stimuli |
Ernest Hilgard |
Hypnosis causes dissociation in consciousness |
Gustav Fechner |
Published research on the absolute threshold of humans |
Herman von Helmholtz |
Created place theory |
J. Allan Hobson |
Said dreams are side effects of neural activation |
John Watson |
Founder of behaviorism |
Leta Stetter Hollingworth |
Focused on children with high IQs |
Linda Bastoshuk |
Leading authority in taste research |
Margaret Washburn |
Second female president of APA and wrote "The Animal Mind" which helped behaviorism emerge |
Mary Calkins |
First female president of APA and founded 1/12 psychology labs in the U.S. |
Max Wertheimer |
Discovered phi phenomenon |
Neal Miller |
Conducted studies to show that animals could be used for testing |
Robert Rosenthal |
Said experimental bias could lead to influence on subject's behavior |
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga |
Studied split-brain to see what makes the hemispheres unique |
Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall |
Gate-control theory |
Rosalind Cartwright |
We tend to dream about problems in our lives |
Sigmund Freud |
Founder of psychoanalysis and coined the term unconscious; Said we dream to fulfill tasks |
Stanley Hall |
Created APA and first psychological research lab at Johns Hopkins |
Wilhelm Wundt |
German professor who created a campaign promoting psychology to become its own field of study |
William James |
Founder of functionalism; said we have a stream of consciousness in which ideas flow |
Genetics
Chromosome |
Strands of DNA that carry genetic information |
Dominant gene |
Gene expressed in a heterozygous condition |
Genes |
DNA segments that serve as key functional units in genetic transfer |
Genetic Mapping |
Determines location and sequence of specific genes |
Genotype |
One's genetic makeup |
Fraternal Twins |
Two eggs fertilized by different sperm cells |
Heterozygous |
One dominant and one recessive allele |
Homozygous |
Both alleles are either dominant or recessive |
Identical Twins |
Results from a zygote splitting |
Natural Selection |
Favorable genes will be passed through generations |
Phenotype |
Expression of one's genotype |
Polygenic Traits |
Characteristic influenced by more than one gene |
Recessive Gene |
Gene not expressed in a heterozygous condition |
Zygote |
Single cell formed by union of sperm and egg |
Body Scans/Tests
Electrical Stimulation |
Sends weak electrical currents into brain structure to activate it |
Electroencephalograph (EEG) |
Monitors electrical activity in brain over time with electrodes attached to scalp |
Electromyograph |
Records muscular activity |
Electrooculograph |
Records eye movement |
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation |
Enhances or depresses parts of the brain |
Parts of Brain
Brain Plasticity |
Brain is more plastic than assumed |
Broca's Area |
Controls the production of speech |
Cerebral Cortex |
Folded outer layer of cerebrum |
Cerebral Hemispheres |
Left and right halves of cerebrum |
Corpus Callosum |
Connects both cerebral hemispheres |
Forebrain |
emotional and complex thought; Largest and most complex part of brain |
Frontal Lobe |
Largest human lobe; controls muscle movement |
Hindbrain |
vital functions; Includes cerebellum, medulla, and pons |
Left Hemisphere |
Verbal processing, language, speech, reading, writing, sequential |
Midbrain |
sensory functions; Part of brain stem between hindbrain and forebrain |
Occipital Lobe |
Location of visual processing |
Parietal Lobe |
Registers sense of touch, phantom limb |
Right Hemisphere |
Nonverbal processing, spatial, musical, visual recognition, parallel |
Temporal Lobe |
Controls auditory processing along with speech and language comprehension |
Wernicke's Area |
Controls the comprehension of a language |
Ear Parts
Amplitude |
Loudness |
Basilar Membrane |
Runs through center of cochlea and has auditory receptors |
Cochlea |
Coiled tunnel filled with fluid that has hearing receptors |
External ear (pinna) |
Collects sound |
Ossicles |
Hammer, anvil, stirrup (tinniest bones in body) |
Purity |
Timbre |
Semicircular Canals |
Passage inside ear that maintains equilibrium |
Wavelength |
Pitch |
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Types of psychologsts
Psychologist |
Dedicated to investigating human behavior in a scientific way |
Clinical Psychologist |
Studies and deals with mentally ill patients |
Psychiatrist |
Diagnoses and treats psychological disorders |
Counseling Psychologist |
Deals with people's every day problems of modern severity |
Research Methods
Double-blind |
Experimenters nor subjects know the hypothesis |
Case Study |
In-depth investigation on an individual or topic |
Experiment |
Manipulating a variable under controlled conditions and. observing changes in a second variable |
Naturalistic Observation |
Conducted be observing others in their natural environment |
Quasi-Experiment |
Individuals chosen for a study have an equal chance of being in the control or experimental group |
APA Guidelines
Anonymity |
Not collecting a person's name during a study |
Confidentiality |
Not releasing any specific response sources |
Debriefing |
Subjects are told the truth of an experiment after being lied to |
Informed Consent |
Allowing participants to choose whether or not they want to be in the study after being told about it |
Random Assignment |
Assigning individuals from the sample into the experimental or control group without bias |
Random Sample |
Sample of people chosen for an experiment without bias |
Random Selection |
Choosing members of a population with no bias that accurately represents that population |
Ways to Represent Data
Correlation |
Relationship between two variables |
Correlation Coefficient |
Degree of relationship between two variables (-1 to 1) |
Frequency Distribution |
Indicates how often an observation or number occurs |
Histogram |
A bar graph |
Mean |
The average of all numbers in a data set |
Median |
The number that lies in the middle of a data set when ordered from least to greatest |
Mode |
The number that appears most often in a set of data |
Normal Curve |
Bell-shaped curve where the average score lies in the middle |
Range |
Largest number- smallest number |
Scatterplot |
Graph of points showing relationship between the x and y axis |
Standard Deviation |
Average distance from the mean in a data set |
Statistical Significance |
Probability that data collected from an experiment are due to chance |
Nervous System Subsystems
Autonomic Nervous System |
Nerves connecting to heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glandsd |
Central Nervous System |
Brain and spinal cord |
Parasympathetic Nervous System |
Autonomic nervous system subset that conserves resources (rest and digest) |
Peripheral Nervous System |
Nerves that lie outside CNS |
Somatic Nervous System |
Nerves that connect voluntary skeletal muscles to sensory receptors |
Sympathetic Nervous System |
Autonomic nervous system subset that deals with emergency body resources (fight or flight) |
Nervous System Subsets Diagram
Glands
Adrenal |
Salt and carbs metabolism |
Gonads |
Sex hormones |
Pancreas |
Sugar metabolism (insulin) |
Pituitary |
Master gland; secretes growth hormones |
Thyroid |
Metabolic rate |
Eye Parts
Cones |
Visual receptors that help in daylight and seeing colors |
Blind Spot |
Hole in retina where nerve fibers exit; image that falls on it isn't visible |
Feature Detectors |
Neurons that respond to very specific features of more complex stimuli |
Fovea |
Tiny spots in center of retina where visual acuity is at its greatest; only has cones |
Lens |
Transparent eye structure that focuses light rays falling on retine |
Optic Chiasm |
Where optic nerves cross |
Optic Disk |
Hole in retina where optic nerves exit eye |
Optic Nerve |
Axons that connect eye to brain |
Photoreceptor |
Rods and cones |
Pupil |
Opening in iris that allows light to pass to back of eyes |
Retina |
Neural tissue at back of eye that absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to brain |
Rods |
Visual receptors that help with night vision, peripheral vision, and black and white images |
Stages of Sleep
1 |
Lightest stage; theta waves; 4-7 waves on screen; 1-7 minutes |
2 |
Slow waves; all waves; spikes on screen; slower heart rate; 10-25 minutes |
3&4 |
Deep and slow waves; delta waves; slow/long waves; longest NREM stage |
REM |
Waves similar to awake ones; beta waves; dreaming; rapid eye movement; fast breathing; no control |
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Approaches
Behavioral |
Study of observable reactions |
Biological |
Behavior controlled by physiological aspects |
Cognitive |
The way that the world is viewed determines one's behavior |
Cross-cultural |
Focuses on filling the data gap between white males and minorities |
Eclectic |
Treatment approach varies on the client's problem |
Evolutionary |
Views behaviors as human adaption |
Functionalism |
Focuses on purpose of consciousness |
Humanistic |
Emphasizes human qualities and potential |
Psychoanalytic |
Addresses internal motivations and unsconcious thoughts that affect one's behavior |
Structualism |
Analyzes consciousness in elements and their relationship |
Parts of an Experiment
Confounding Variable |
Two independent variables in an experiment |
Control Group |
Group that does not receive special treatment |
Dependent Variable |
Variable affected when the independent variable is altered |
Experimental Group |
Group that receives special treatment |
Extraneous Variable |
Outside variable that influences the dependent variable |
Hypothesis |
Prediction of what the data will prove at the end of an experiment |
Independent Variable |
Event or condition manipulated in order to evoke change in the dependent variable |
Operational Definition |
Specific definition of the measures of the variables in an experiment |
Subject/Participant |
People or animals observed in a study |
Neuron Parts
Action Potential |
Shift in neuron's electrical charge that travels along axon |
Afferent Nerve Fibers |
Carry information inwards to CNS |
Axon |
Long fiber that transmits signals way from soma to other cells |
Dendrites |
Receives information |
Efferent Nerve Fibers |
Carry information outwards from CNS |
Glia |
Provide support for neurons |
Mylein Sheath |
Insulates axons to speed up signal transmissions |
Resting Potential |
Neuron is stable, negatively charged, and inactive |
Reuptake |
Neurotransmitters sponged from synaptic cleft by presynaptic membrane |
Soma |
Cell body which contains the nucleus and main cell parts |
Synapse/ Synaptic Cleft |
Gap between terminal button of a neuron and cell membrane of another |
Terminal Buttons |
Secretes chemicals |
Drugs
Alcohol |
Beverages containing ethyl alcohol (ex. vodka, rum, beer, whiskey) |
Cannabis |
Plant that makes weed, THC, and hashish |
MDMA |
Related to amphetamines, hallucinogens, and mescaline (ex. adulterants, ecstasy, caffeine, heroine) |
Narcotics |
Opiates; relieve pain (Ex. opium, heroin, codeine, oxycodone) |
Opiates |
Narcotics; relieve pain (ex. same as narcotics) |
Psychoactive Drugs |
Modify mental, emotional, and behavioral functions |
Sedatives |
Sleep-inducting drugs that decrease CNS function and behaviors (ex. sleeping pills) |
Stimulants |
Increase CNS activation and behaviors (Ex. Cocaine, meth, adderal) |
Perception Phenomenons
Absolute Threshold |
Minimum stimulus that can be detected |
Additive Color Mixing |
More light in a mix than exists in any one light |
Afterimage |
Visual image that persists after stimulus is removed |
Binocular Depth Cues |
Clues about distance based on differing views of two eyes |
Convergence |
Eyes go inward when looking at a close-up object |
Dark Adaptation |
Eyes become sensitive to light with little light present |
Feature Analysis |
Detecting specifics in a visual input and putting them in a more complex form |
Habituation |
Tendency to have a decreased response to something |
Impossible Figures |
Objects that can be represented in 2D but not 3D |
Inattentional Bias |
Failure to see visible things because attention is focused |
Just Noticeable Difference |
Smallest difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected |
Light Adaptation |
Eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination |
Monocular Depth Cues |
Ability to judge distance with one eye |
Motion Parallex |
Closer things more quicker than further items |
Parallel Processing |
Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously |
Perceptual Constancy |
Tendency to experience a stable perception when something is changing |
Perceptual Set |
Readiness to perceive a certain stimuli in a particular way |
Phi Phenomenon |
Moving illusion done by presenting visual stimuli in rapid order |
Retina Disparity |
Objects within 25ft look slightly different if one eye is covered |
Reversible Figure |
Drawing that can go back and forth with interpretations |
Sensory Adaptation |
Gradual decline in sensitivity because of prolonged stimulation |
Subliminal Perception |
Registration of sensory input without being aware |
Subtractive Color Mixing |
Removing wavelengths to make a color darker |
Sleep Phenomenons/ Disorders
Insomnia |
Chronic problems getting adequate sleep |
Latent Content |
Hidden meaning of a dream |
Lucid Dreams |
People thinking clearly while in a dream and walking through life |
Manifest Content |
Plot of a dream, the literal plot |
Night Terrors |
Abrupt awakenings from NREM with panic |
Nightmares |
Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to people waking up from REM |
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder |
Acting out while one is asleep |
Sleep Apnea |
Reflexive gasps for air that wake people up |
Somnambulism |
Sleepwalking |
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ur a lifesaver...im selfstudying psych and bio exam and i need this!
ur a lifesaver...im selfstudying psych and bio exam and i need this!
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