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Cheatsheet for chapter 6-10 of AP Psychology
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PeopleAlbert Bandura | Investigated observational learning | Alfred Binet | Pioneered formula for mental age, later used in calculating IQ | B.F. Skinner | Named "operant condition" and showed that responses are repeated if consequences are favorable; said environment governed language development | Charles Spearman | Creator of general intelligence factor | David Buss | Found women like status and ambition while men like physical aspects | David Wechsler | Made IQ test for adults | Elizabeth Loftus | Researched memory and how misinformation effect creates doubt in eye-witness testimonies | Ellen Winner | Profoundly gifted kids suffer more from emotional/social problems than moderately gifted kids | E.L. Thorndike | One of the first to research operant conditioning with a cat in a puzzle box | Francis Galton | Interested in link between intelligence and heredity | Herman Ebbinghaus | First to study memory and used nonsense syllables on himself | George Miller | Short term memory; said we can hold 7+/-2 items in short term memory at a time | Howard Gardner | Theory of multiple intelligences | Ivan Pavlov | Russian physiologist who conducted the experiment with the salivation of dogs; found classical conditioning | John B. Watson | Founder of behaviorism and conducted early study of generalization | John Garcia | Conducted studies on taste aversion | Lewis Terman | Revised Binet's IQ test and made norms for American children | Noam Chomsky | Kids learn syntax and rules of language rather than memorize specific verbal responses | Robert Sternberg | Created successful intelligence theory | Stanley Schnaster | Created two factor theory of emotion | Sue Savage Rumbaugh | Taught Kanzi how to speak with pictures and proved animals could understand language | Walter Cannon | Said thalamus sends signal to cortex and autonomic system simultaneously | William James | Said emotion results from perception of autonomic arousal | William Masters and Virginia Johnson | Studied the sexual response cycle through observation and experiment |
MemoryChunk | Group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit | Cocktail Party Phenomenon | Focusing on one aspect of something and forgetting about the rest | Elaboration | Linking stimulus to other information while encoding | Encoding | Forming a memory code | Flashbulb Memories | Vivid and detailed memories of big events (ex. 9/11) | Long-Term Memory | Infinite capacity and can store information for long periods of time | Rehearsal | Repeating information aloud or thinking about it constantly to move to long term memory | Retrieval | Recover information from storage | Self-Referent Encoding | Deciding if and how information is relevant and worthy of keeping in memory | Sensory Memory | Information kept in its original sensory form for 1/4 of a second | Storage | Maintaining encoded information in memory over time | Short-Term Memory | Limited capacity (5-9 items) and can store unrehearsed information for 10-20 seconds |
Memory SystemsConceptual Memory | Classification system with many levels based on common properties | Connectionist Model/ Parallel Distributed Processes | Cognitive processes rely on neurons that resemble computational networks | Declarative Memory | Handles factual information | Echoic Memory | Perfect brief (3-4 seconds) memory for sound | Episodic Memory | Chronological recollections of personal experiences | Explicit Memory | First thing we think of, normally memories or facts | Iconic Memory | A split-second perfect photograph of a scene | Implicit Memory | Unintentional memories | Nondeclarative Memory | Handles memories for actions, skills, and emotional responses | Schemas | Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular topic | Semantic Memory | General knowledge not tied to time | Semantic Network | Nodes (concepts) joined by linking paths |
ForgettingAnterograde Amnesia | Loss of memory after onset of amnesia | Decay Theory | Things are forgotten because memory fades over time | Forgetting Curve | Graph showing forgetfulness and retention | Hindsight Bias | Shaping one's interpretation of the past to fit how events turned out | Interference Theory | People forget information because of competition for other material | Misinformation Effect | Recollection of event altered by misleading post-event information | Proactive Intereference | Previously learned information interferes with retention of new information | Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon | Temporarily not being able to remember something; feeling as if information is just out of reach | Repression | Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings in the unconcious | Retroactive Interference | New information impairs retention of previously learned information | Retrograde Amnesia | Loss of memory before onset of amnesia | Serial Position Effect | Tendency to forget the middle things of a list | Source Amnesia | Not being able to remember the source of information and thinking you just knew it | Source Monitoring Effect | Memory from one source is mistaken for coming from another source |
| | Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning | Stimulus can evoke a response that was evoked by another stimulus | Conditioned Response | Learned reaction to conditioned stimulus | Conditioned Stimulus | Previously neutral stimulus that provokes new reaction | Higher-Order Conditioning | Conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditioned stimulus | Instinctive Drift | Animal instincts interfere with conditioning process | Pavlonian Conditioning | Another name for classical conditioning used as a tribute to Pavlov | Stimulus Discrimination | Only providing a response to one specific stimuli | Stimulus Generalization | Reacting to two similar stimuli in the same way | Unconditioned Response | Natural reaction to a stimulus | Unconditioned Stimulus | Provokes a natural response |
Operant ConditioningBobo Doll Experiment | Kids shown aggressive adults to see if they were aggressive (they were) | Conditioned Reinforcers | Have reinforcing qualities similar to primary reinforcers | Escape Learning | Response developed to end undesirable event | Law of Effect | Positive behavioral consequences lead to behaviors being repeated while punishments cause the extinction of that behavior | Negative Reinforcement | Removing something undesirable in order for an event to be repeated | Operant Conditioning | Conditioning that involves consequences | Positive Reinforcement | Adding something desirable in order to an event to be repeated | Primary Reinforcers | Reinforcements needed to live (ex. food) | Punishment | Adding/removing something so that an action is not repeated | Reinforcement | Events following response that increase likelihood of that response being repeated | Secondary Reinforcers | Reinforcers based on one's wants (ex. phone) | Shaping | Using reinforcements and punishments to get a certain behavior | Skinner Box | Rats were shocked slightly until they pushed a lever to receive food |
Reinforcement SchedulesContinuous Reinforcement | Everything in a response is reinforced | Fixed-Interval Schedule | Reinforcer given after a period of time | Fixed-Ratio Schedule | Reinforcer given after set number of unreinforced responses | Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement | Only reinforcing designated response sometimes | Variable-Interval Schedule | Reinforcer given a random time period after first response | Variable-Ratio Schedule | Reinforcer given after random number of non-reinforced responses |
Types of IntelligencesCrystallized Intelligence | Ability to apply acquired skills and knowledge to problems | Emotional Intelligence | Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions | Fluid Intelligence | Ability to reason, memory capacity, and speed of information processing | Intellectual Disability | Subnormal mental ability and deficiencies in every day things before the age of 18 | Practical Intelligence | Sees all aspects of a problem; good decisions; poses problems in an optimal way | Social Intelligence | Accepts others for what they are; thinks before speaking; sensitive to other people's needs and desires | Verbal Intelligence | Verbally fluent; speaks clearly; knowledgeable in a certain field; reads with high comprehension |
SexBisexual | Seek emotional sexual relationships with members of either sex | Estrogen | Primary female hormone | Heterosexual | Seek emotional sexual relationships with the opposite sex | Homosexual | Seek emotional sexual relationships with the same sex | Refractory Period | Time after orgasm in which males are unresponsive to further stimulation | Sexual Disorder | A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or function | Sexual Orientation | A person's preference or emotional and sexual relationships in their sex | Sexual Response Cycle | Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution | Testosterone | Primary male hormone | Vasocongestion | Engorgement of blood vessels to produce an erection |
| | Parts of LanguageLanguage | Symbols that convey meaning with rules on how to put them together to mean an infinite number of things | Morphemes | Smallest unit of speech; 100 possible but 40 in English | Phonemes | Smallest distinguishable unit of speech; 50,000 in English (root words, prefixes, suffixes) | Semantics | Concerned with meaning of words and their combinations; deepest way to encode | Syntax | System of rules in a language (grammar rules) |
Learning LanguageFast Mapping | When young kids remember a word by only seeing it once | Language Acquisition Device | Innate process that helps one learn a language | Overextension | Child uses a word for a wider set of objects or actions than intended (calls every circular thing a ball) | Overregularization | Incorrect application of grammatical rules (feets instead of feet) | Telegraphic Speech | Consists or two word phrases (Give food) | Underextension | Child uses a word for a smaller range of objects than intended (only calls their dog a dog) |
Problem SolvingAlgorithm | Step-by-step procedure for trying all alternatives searching for a solution | Decision Making | Evaluating alternatives and making decisions | Framing | The way in which questions are worded | Functional Fixedness | Seeing an item as its most common use | Heuristic | Guiding principle used in solving problems or making decisions (going right is always right) | Incubation | New solutions arising after taking a break from solving | Insight | Suddenly discovering correct solution to a problem after struggling for a while | Mental Set | Using something again because its worked before | Problem Solving | Efforts made to discover what must be done to achieve a goal | Problem Space | Set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver | Risky Decision Making | Making uncertain choices | Semantic Slanting | Choosing words to elicit an emotional response and gain a certain reaction or solution | Theory of Bounded Rationality | Using simple decision making strategies which often result in irrational decisions (choosing C on a test when you're lost) |
Heuristics/ FallaciesAvailability Heuristic | Basing estimates on what one has seen | Belief Bias | Illogical conclusions to confirm previous beliefs | Belief Perseverance | Maintain a belief even after evidence contradicts it | Conjunction Fallacy | Estimating that odds of two events happening together are greater than them happening by themselves | Gambler's Fallacy Heuristic | Believing probability of something happening will increase if it hasn't happened in a whille | Representativeness Heuristic | Basing estimates on how similar it is to a prototype |
Test TypesAchievement Test | Asses a person's mastery and knowledge on a topic | Aptitude Tests | Tests specific types of mental abilities | Intelligence Tests | Measures general mental ability | Personality Tests | Measures various aspects of one's personality | Psychological Test | Standard measure of a sample of a person's behavior |
Test VerificationConstruct Validity | How well evidence lines up a hypothetical costruct | Content Validity | Degree to which test content represents domain its supposed to cover | Correlation Coefficient | Degree of relationship of two variables | Criterion Relate Validity | Comparing two assessments that should represent the same information | Percentile Score | Percent of people who score at or below a certain score | Reliability | How consistent the scores of a test are | Standardization | Uniform procedures used when administering and scoring tests | Test Norms | Information about where a score on a psychological test ranks compared to others | Validity | Ability of a test to measure what it's supposed to measure |
Test VerificationConstruct Validity | How well evidence lines up a hypothetical costruct | Content Validity | Degree to which test content represents domain its supposed to cover | Correlation Coefficient | Degree of relationship of two variables | Criterion Relate Validity | Comparing two assessments that should represent the same information | Percentile Score | Percent of people who score at or below a certain score | Reliability | How consistent the scores of a test are | Standardization | Uniform procedures used when administering and scoring tests | Test Norms | Information about where a score on a psychological test ranks compared to others | Validity | Ability of a test to measure what it's supposed to measure |
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