Cheatography
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Cheatsheet for chapter 6-10 of AP Psychology
I accidentally put a block twice, sorry :(
People
Albert Bandura |
Investigated observational learning |
Alfred Binet |
Pioneered formula for mental age, later used in calculating IQ |
B.F. Skinner |
Named "operant condition" and showed that responses are repeated if consequences are favorable; said environment governed language development |
Charles Spearman |
Creator of general intelligence factor |
David Buss |
Found women like status and ambition while men like physical aspects |
David Wechsler |
Made IQ test for adults |
Elizabeth Loftus |
Researched memory and how misinformation effect creates doubt in eye-witness testimonies |
Ellen Winner |
Profoundly gifted kids suffer more from emotional/social problems than moderately gifted kids |
E.L. Thorndike |
One of the first to research operant conditioning with a cat in a puzzle box |
Francis Galton |
Interested in link between intelligence and heredity |
Herman Ebbinghaus |
First to study memory and used nonsense syllables on himself |
George Miller |
Short term memory; said we can hold 7+/-2 items in short term memory at a time |
Howard Gardner |
Theory of multiple intelligences |
Ivan Pavlov |
Russian physiologist who conducted the experiment with the salivation of dogs; found classical conditioning |
John B. Watson |
Founder of behaviorism and conducted early study of generalization |
John Garcia |
Conducted studies on taste aversion |
Lewis Terman |
Revised Binet's IQ test and made norms for American children |
Noam Chomsky |
Kids learn syntax and rules of language rather than memorize specific verbal responses |
Robert Sternberg |
Created successful intelligence theory |
Stanley Schnaster |
Created two factor theory of emotion |
Sue Savage Rumbaugh |
Taught Kanzi how to speak with pictures and proved animals could understand language |
Walter Cannon |
Said thalamus sends signal to cortex and autonomic system simultaneously |
William James |
Said emotion results from perception of autonomic arousal |
William Masters and Virginia Johnson |
Studied the sexual response cycle through observation and experiment |
Memory
Chunk |
Group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit |
Cocktail Party Phenomenon |
Focusing on one aspect of something and forgetting about the rest |
Elaboration |
Linking stimulus to other information while encoding |
Encoding |
Forming a memory code |
Flashbulb Memories |
Vivid and detailed memories of big events (ex. 9/11) |
Long-Term Memory |
Infinite capacity and can store information for long periods of time |
Rehearsal |
Repeating information aloud or thinking about it constantly to move to long term memory |
Retrieval |
Recover information from storage |
Self-Referent Encoding |
Deciding if and how information is relevant and worthy of keeping in memory |
Sensory Memory |
Information kept in its original sensory form for 1/4 of a second |
Storage |
Maintaining encoded information in memory over time |
Short-Term Memory |
Limited capacity (5-9 items) and can store unrehearsed information for 10-20 seconds |
Memory Systems
Conceptual Memory |
Classification system with many levels based on common properties |
Connectionist Model/ Parallel Distributed Processes |
Cognitive processes rely on neurons that resemble computational networks |
Declarative Memory |
Handles factual information |
Echoic Memory |
Perfect brief (3-4 seconds) memory for sound |
Episodic Memory |
Chronological recollections of personal experiences |
Explicit Memory |
First thing we think of, normally memories or facts |
Iconic Memory |
A split-second perfect photograph of a scene |
Implicit Memory |
Unintentional memories |
Nondeclarative Memory |
Handles memories for actions, skills, and emotional responses |
Schemas |
Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular topic |
Semantic Memory |
General knowledge not tied to time |
Semantic Network |
Nodes (concepts) joined by linking paths |
Forgetting
Anterograde Amnesia |
Loss of memory after onset of amnesia |
Decay Theory |
Things are forgotten because memory fades over time |
Forgetting Curve |
Graph showing forgetfulness and retention |
Hindsight Bias |
Shaping one's interpretation of the past to fit how events turned out |
Interference Theory |
People forget information because of competition for other material |
Misinformation Effect |
Recollection of event altered by misleading post-event information |
Proactive Intereference |
Previously learned information interferes with retention of new information |
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon |
Temporarily not being able to remember something; feeling as if information is just out of reach |
Repression |
Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings in the unconcious |
Retroactive Interference |
New information impairs retention of previously learned information |
Retrograde Amnesia |
Loss of memory before onset of amnesia |
Serial Position Effect |
Tendency to forget the middle things of a list |
Source Amnesia |
Not being able to remember the source of information and thinking you just knew it |
Source Monitoring Effect |
Memory from one source is mistaken for coming from another source |
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning |
Stimulus can evoke a response that was evoked by another stimulus |
Conditioned Response |
Learned reaction to conditioned stimulus |
Conditioned Stimulus |
Previously neutral stimulus that provokes new reaction |
Higher-Order Conditioning |
Conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditioned stimulus |
Instinctive Drift |
Animal instincts interfere with conditioning process |
Pavlonian Conditioning |
Another name for classical conditioning used as a tribute to Pavlov |
Stimulus Discrimination |
Only providing a response to one specific stimuli |
Stimulus Generalization |
Reacting to two similar stimuli in the same way |
Unconditioned Response |
Natural reaction to a stimulus |
Unconditioned Stimulus |
Provokes a natural response |
Operant Conditioning
Bobo Doll Experiment |
Kids shown aggressive adults to see if they were aggressive (they were) |
Conditioned Reinforcers |
Have reinforcing qualities similar to primary reinforcers |
Escape Learning |
Response developed to end undesirable event |
Law of Effect |
Positive behavioral consequences lead to behaviors being repeated while punishments cause the extinction of that behavior |
Negative Reinforcement |
Removing something undesirable in order for an event to be repeated |
Operant Conditioning |
Conditioning that involves consequences |
Positive Reinforcement |
Adding something desirable in order to an event to be repeated |
Primary Reinforcers |
Reinforcements needed to live (ex. food) |
Punishment |
Adding/removing something so that an action is not repeated |
Reinforcement |
Events following response that increase likelihood of that response being repeated |
Secondary Reinforcers |
Reinforcers based on one's wants (ex. phone) |
Shaping |
Using reinforcements and punishments to get a certain behavior |
Skinner Box |
Rats were shocked slightly until they pushed a lever to receive food |
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement |
Everything in a response is reinforced |
Fixed-Interval Schedule |
Reinforcer given after a period of time |
Fixed-Ratio Schedule |
Reinforcer given after set number of unreinforced responses |
Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement |
Only reinforcing designated response sometimes |
Variable-Interval Schedule |
Reinforcer given a random time period after first response |
Variable-Ratio Schedule |
Reinforcer given after random number of non-reinforced responses |
Types of Intelligences
Crystallized Intelligence |
Ability to apply acquired skills and knowledge to problems |
Emotional Intelligence |
Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions |
Fluid Intelligence |
Ability to reason, memory capacity, and speed of information processing |
Intellectual Disability |
Subnormal mental ability and deficiencies in every day things before the age of 18 |
Practical Intelligence |
Sees all aspects of a problem; good decisions; poses problems in an optimal way |
Social Intelligence |
Accepts others for what they are; thinks before speaking; sensitive to other people's needs and desires |
Verbal Intelligence |
Verbally fluent; speaks clearly; knowledgeable in a certain field; reads with high comprehension |
Sex
Bisexual |
Seek emotional sexual relationships with members of either sex |
Estrogen |
Primary female hormone |
Heterosexual |
Seek emotional sexual relationships with the opposite sex |
Homosexual |
Seek emotional sexual relationships with the same sex |
Refractory Period |
Time after orgasm in which males are unresponsive to further stimulation |
Sexual Disorder |
A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or function |
Sexual Orientation |
A person's preference or emotional and sexual relationships in their sex |
Sexual Response Cycle |
Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution |
Testosterone |
Primary male hormone |
Vasocongestion |
Engorgement of blood vessels to produce an erection |
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Parts of Language
Language |
Symbols that convey meaning with rules on how to put them together to mean an infinite number of things |
Morphemes |
Smallest unit of speech; 100 possible but 40 in English |
Phonemes |
Smallest distinguishable unit of speech; 50,000 in English (root words, prefixes, suffixes) |
Semantics |
Concerned with meaning of words and their combinations; deepest way to encode |
Syntax |
System of rules in a language (grammar rules) |
Learning Language
Fast Mapping |
When young kids remember a word by only seeing it once |
Language Acquisition Device |
Innate process that helps one learn a language |
Overextension |
Child uses a word for a wider set of objects or actions than intended (calls every circular thing a ball) |
Overregularization |
Incorrect application of grammatical rules (feets instead of feet) |
Telegraphic Speech |
Consists or two word phrases (Give food) |
Underextension |
Child uses a word for a smaller range of objects than intended (only calls their dog a dog) |
Problem Solving
Algorithm |
Step-by-step procedure for trying all alternatives searching for a solution |
Decision Making |
Evaluating alternatives and making decisions |
Framing |
The way in which questions are worded |
Functional Fixedness |
Seeing an item as its most common use |
Heuristic |
Guiding principle used in solving problems or making decisions (going right is always right) |
Incubation |
New solutions arising after taking a break from solving |
Insight |
Suddenly discovering correct solution to a problem after struggling for a while |
Mental Set |
Using something again because its worked before |
Problem Solving |
Efforts made to discover what must be done to achieve a goal |
Problem Space |
Set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver |
Risky Decision Making |
Making uncertain choices |
Semantic Slanting |
Choosing words to elicit an emotional response and gain a certain reaction or solution |
Theory of Bounded Rationality |
Using simple decision making strategies which often result in irrational decisions (choosing C on a test when you're lost) |
Heuristics/ Fallacies
Availability Heuristic |
Basing estimates on what one has seen |
Belief Bias |
Illogical conclusions to confirm previous beliefs |
Belief Perseverance |
Maintain a belief even after evidence contradicts it |
Conjunction Fallacy |
Estimating that odds of two events happening together are greater than them happening by themselves |
Gambler's Fallacy Heuristic |
Believing probability of something happening will increase if it hasn't happened in a whille |
Representativeness Heuristic |
Basing estimates on how similar it is to a prototype |
Test Types
Achievement Test |
Asses a person's mastery and knowledge on a topic |
Aptitude Tests |
Tests specific types of mental abilities |
Intelligence Tests |
Measures general mental ability |
Personality Tests |
Measures various aspects of one's personality |
Psychological Test |
Standard measure of a sample of a person's behavior |
Test Verification
Construct Validity |
How well evidence lines up a hypothetical costruct |
Content Validity |
Degree to which test content represents domain its supposed to cover |
Correlation Coefficient |
Degree of relationship of two variables |
Criterion Relate Validity |
Comparing two assessments that should represent the same information |
Percentile Score |
Percent of people who score at or below a certain score |
Reliability |
How consistent the scores of a test are |
Standardization |
Uniform procedures used when administering and scoring tests |
Test Norms |
Information about where a score on a psychological test ranks compared to others |
Validity |
Ability of a test to measure what it's supposed to measure |
Test Verification
Construct Validity |
How well evidence lines up a hypothetical costruct |
Content Validity |
Degree to which test content represents domain its supposed to cover |
Correlation Coefficient |
Degree of relationship of two variables |
Criterion Relate Validity |
Comparing two assessments that should represent the same information |
Percentile Score |
Percent of people who score at or below a certain score |
Reliability |
How consistent the scores of a test are |
Standardization |
Uniform procedures used when administering and scoring tests |
Test Norms |
Information about where a score on a psychological test ranks compared to others |
Validity |
Ability of a test to measure what it's supposed to measure |
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