Evolution
requirements of natural selection |
variation, inheritance, variable survival/reproductive success |
homology |
similar origin |
bat/bird wings |
analogy |
similar structure |
butterfly wings |
apomorphy |
derived, shared traits |
plesiomorphy |
ancestral, shared traits |
autapomorphy |
derived, unique |
synapomorphy |
derived, shared in ancestry |
homoplasy |
derived, found independently in tree |
stabilizing selection |
intermediately favored, average (purifying) |
directional |
extreme phenotype |
disruptive |
2+ favored (diversifying) |
genetic drift |
change in allele frequency due to chance |
Founder- Bottleneck- |
gene flow |
movement of alleles between pops |
migration, seed dispersal |
hardy-weinberg |
p2+2pq+q2=1 |
if mutation, non-random mate, small pop size, gene flow, natural selection |
Macroevolution
pre-fertilization barrier |
prevent fert |
spatial, behavior, mechanical, temporal, gamete incompatibility |
post |
hybrid dies |
hybrid sterility/inviable |
speciation |
form new species |
punctuated speciation |
short bursts |
graduated |
slow changes |
phylogeny
limitations of linnaean classifications |
species may not be closely related, unrelated species placed together due to convergent evolution, related species separated, subject to reclassification if DNA indicates |
monophyletic |
full clade |
paraphyletic |
ancestral and some descendants |
polyphyletic |
not include most common ancestor |
ingroup |
species part of study |
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Plant History
470mya |
origin from green algae |
425mya |
traits for life on land |
385mya |
first forests |
challenges for land plants |
limited water, structural support, reproductive techniques (wind/pollinators) |
benefits |
more sunlight, carbon dioxide, soil nutrients |
Seedless Vascular (pteridophyta)
sporophyte |
fertilization (diploid) visibly dominant |
all seedless vascular (eg. ferns) |
gametophyte |
meiosis (haploid) |
moss, liverwort |
thallus |
plant w/o leaf, stem, roots |
asexual repro |
produce spores in sori, spores germinate |
sexual repro |
prothallus produce eggs (archegonia) and sperm (antheridia), sperm fertilizes egg |
Seeded plants
characteristics |
roots, stems, leaves, vasc tissue, sporophyte dom, reproduce by seeds |
benefits of seeds |
embryo protection, food reserve for embryo, dormancy, dispersal |
benefits of pollen |
plants are no longer dependent on water to transport sperm |
gymnosperm |
naked seed, no flower/fruit, cones |
cycadophyta, gingkophyta, gnetophyta, coniferophyta |
fascicles |
needle like leaf bundles (reduce stomata, need for excess photosynthesis) |
resin ducts |
defend against predators |
angiosperm |
vessels, seeds, fruits |
300 families, 369400 species, dominated terrestrial environment for 100+ million years |
monocots |
one cotyledon, parallel veins, scattered vascular tissue, fibrous root, floral organs in 3s |
eudicots |
two cotyledon, reticulate vein, ringed vasc tissue, taproot, flower organs in 4/5s |
pericarp |
outer skin of flower (epi/meso/endocarps) |
simple fruit |
apple |
aggregate |
raspberry |
multiple |
pineapple |
double fertilization |
sperm (n) + egg (n) + nucleus (n) = 3n |
vascular plant anatomy
epidermis |
waxy cuticle, guard cells, stomata, protective hairs, glands |
periderm |
replaces epiderm |
parenchyma |
thin walls |
mesophyll (ground) |
collenchyma |
thick walls, flexible support |
sclerenchyma |
thick walls w/ lignin for support (nonliving) |
xylem |
water/minerals (roots to leaves) |
both dead: tracheids (long,narrow) vessel elements (small,thick) |
phloem |
nutrients (leaves to roots) |
sieve tube (sugars travel, living no nucleus) companion (helper) |
indeterminate meristem |
grow throughout life |
primary |
height (apex) |
secondary |
girth |
monocot root |
distinct rings |
eudicot |
star-like bundles |
root cap |
zone of cell division, elongation, differentiation |
apical |
dome shaped mass of dividing cells at shoot tip |
vascular cambium |
secondary growth in xylem |
woody plants |
cork cambium |
periderm |
all gymnosperms, many eudicots |
vasc plant transport
passive transport |
high to low concentration |
via phospholipid bilayer, aquaporins, transporters, or channel proteins |
active |
low to high |
via proton pumps, transport proteins (carrier proteins) |
long distance bulk flow |
through xylem/phloem |
roots to shoots |
apoplast |
through cell wall |
symplast |
through cytoplasm |
route |
cortex via apo/sym, endodermis (checkpoint for selective passage), casparian strip (blocks apoplast transfer, to cylinder made of suberin) |
suberin |
complex biopolymer found on inner face of primary cell walls |
gutlation |
progressive absorption capacity in roots (root pressure) |
transpiration |
evaporation of water from stomata |
adhesion/cohesion |
creates water columns |
tension |
negative pressure created by evaporating water molecules |
guard cells |
open/close to balance water conservation |
translocation |
movement of nutrients via actively loaded phloem (source to sink) |
by pressure flow |
source |
leaves |
sink |
flower |
auxin |
growth, fruit development, slow leaf loss, cell division |
ehylene |
ripen fruit |
absisic acid |
shed leaves, seed dormancy |
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fungi
45,000 known species, estimated 2/3 million |
relatives to animals |
saprotrophs |
heterotrophs that obtain nutrients from organic material |
non-motile |
grow toward food source |
mycorrhizae |
mutualism w/ plant roots |
mycelia |
networks of branched hyphae adapted for absorption |
maximizes surface:volume ration (long, skinny) |
multinucleate hyphae |
1- septate, 2 - coenocytic, 1/2 - pseudo |
cryptomycota/microsporidions |
parasitic, freshwater, marine, soil, closely related to fungi |
chytridomycota |
1st to evolve, zoospores, freshwater/marine, decomposers, parasites, mutualists |
zoopagomycota |
nonflagellated spores, some endoparasites |
mucoromycota |
zygospore fungi (fast growing molds, parasite, pathogens), mycorrhizal |
arbuscular mycorrhizae |
ascomycota (sac fungi) |
plant pathogens, decomp, symbionts (ascocorp = produce spores, conidiophores = branches) |
8 spores per ascus |
basidiomycota |
mushrooms (basidium, basidiocarp) |
mutualists |
mycorrhizae, endophytes, lichen |
animals
protist ancestors (choanoflagellates) |
600 mya |
spicules |
skeleton like structure pieces |
mesophyll |
semi fluid matrix w/ amoeboid cells, produce spicules |
all chordates |
notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post anal tail |
monotremes |
hard shelled amniotic egg, milk from sweat glands (no nipples) |
platypus |
marsupial |
true pouch w/ nipples |
koala, opossum |
epithelial |
secrete, absorb, excrete, filter |
simple (1 layer) stratified (multiple layer) |
connective |
loose (few fiber), fibrous (semi solid, many fibers), adipose, cartilage, bone (rigid matrix), blood |
muscular |
skeletal, cardiac, smooth |
negative feedback |
keep variable close to value (do opposite) |
sensor, control center, effector |
positive feedback |
amplifies signal |
clotting, labor contractions |
ecology
organismal |
individual |
anatomy/physio/behavior |
populations |
group of individuals |
pop size (how/why) |
community |
species |
interactions |
ecosystem |
energy flow/chem cycling |
landscape |
mosaic of ecosystems |
controlling exchange |
global |
regional exchange |
global air circulation pattern |
colling trade winds blow from E to W in tropics (deflection of wind from vertical paths near equator) |
30 N/S desert (dry air descends), 60 N/S wet (air mass rise, release precipitation), poles dry/frigid |
gyres |
multiple currents working together |
biomes |
vegetation, climate, physical (but not species) |
ecotone |
area of transition between biomes |
type 1 curve |
low death rates at birth |
humans, elephants |
type 2 |
constant death |
squirrels, annual plants, lizards |
type 3 |
high death rates at birth |
fish, marine invert, long lived plants |
semelparity |
bing bang reproduction (once and then die) |
annual plants |
iteroparity |
repeated reproduction |
humans |
exponential growth |
J shaped (ideal) |
logistic |
S (realistic) |
batesian |
nonvenom pretends venomous |
mullerian |
bad tasting |
aposematic coloring |
indicate poison |
competetive exclusion principle |
no 2 species using exact resources can coexist |
eco niche partition |
separate role |
temporal |
opposite schedules |
fundamental niche |
ideal, wider area |
realized niche |
w/ competitor, narrow |
character displacement |
tendency of populations to diverge in characteristics when sympatric |
different beak morphology |
bottom up control |
what they eat, affected by food at lower level |
top down |
what eats them, affected by abundance of consumers at higher levels |
flow of energy |
cannot be recycled |
light |
net primary production |
amt available to consumers (1/2 of GPP) |
terrestrial primary production |
most in tropics (moisture, sunlight, temp, nutrients) |
net secondary production |
amt of emergy organism consumes/uses for growth |
assimilation |
amt of energy organism uses for above+respiration |
energy transfer only 10% efficient |
movement corridors |
connect fragmented habitats |
water cycle |
enter by drinking/absorption, leave by evaporation, transpiration, peeing |
carbon |
enter plants via photosynthesis, return by respiration, volcanoes, fossil fuels |
nitrogen fixation |
conversion of unusable nitrogen to NH4 and NO3 |
assimilation |
uptake of NH4 and NO3 by plants |
ammonification |
N2 to NH3 to NH4 |
nitrification |
NH4 to NO2 to NO3 |
denitrification |
NO3 to N2 |
phosphorus cycle |
rock weathering adds PO4(-3) to soil, to plants, biomolecules to animals |
decomposition/excretion |
phosphate returned to soil/water |
ecosystem services |
natural ecosystems help sustain human life |
purification, detox, nutrient cycling, moderating weather, organism interactions |
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