Chi-Square
((O-E)^2)/E |
Degrees of Freedom: n-1 (number of variants -1) |
Critical Values: 95% certainty (0.05) |
if the number is higher than the critical value, REJECT the null hypothesis |
Surface Tension
measure of how difficult to stretch/break the surface |
interface H bonds with molecules on surface and below the surface |
causes water to bead |
Water is the Solvent of Life
solution: homogeneous mixture of two or more substances |
solvent: dissolving agent |
solute: substance that is dissolved |
aqueous solution: water is solvent |
Nucleic Acids - Structure
Monomer - Nucleotide: |
DNA: |
RNA: |
sugar (ribose, deoxyribose) |
deoxyribose |
ribose |
nitrogen base (pyrimidine (C,T,U and one ring) and purine (A,G and two rings) |
A, T, G, C |
A, U, G, C |
phosphate |
double strand |
single strand |
|
|
Properties of Water
cohesive behavior |
resists changes in temperature |
expands when it freezes |
versatile solvent |
polar, covalent |
H+ and O- |
Lipids Structure
diverse non-polar, hydrophobic molecules (insoluble) |
hydrocarbons |
glycerol and fatty acids |
Secondary Structure
coils and folds |
result of hydrogen bonding |
only atoms in backbone are involved |
α helix and β pleated sheets |
Primary Structure
unique sequence of amino acids |
DNA -> RNA -> protein |
Lysozyme (129 amino acids, inherited) |
Peptide Bonds
carbonyl adjacent to amino |
formed by dehydration |
N-terminus (amino group) |
C-terminus (carboxyl group) |
| |
formed by dehydration |
Hydrophobic vs. Hydrophilic
Hydrophobic: |
Hydrophilic: |
do not have affinity to water |
has affinity for water |
non-ionic, non-polar repel water |
even if substance does not dissolve (cotton) |
Hydrogen Bonding
absorb heat to break |
release heat to form |
|
|
Acids and Bases
Acids: |
Bases: |
increase the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution |
reduces hydrogen ion concentration |
lower pH |
higher pH |
Density
ice floats: hydrogen bonds make water less dense in solid state |
water is densest at -4 C |
Tertiary Structure
interactions of side chains (R groups) |
hydrophobic interactions |
disulfide bridges |
hydrogen bonds |
ionic bonds |
Quaternary Structure
overall protein structure |
aggregation of two or more polypeptide chains |
protein conformation (interactions responsible for 2' and 3', physical and chemical conditions) |
denaturation: unfolding of protein structure |
Cohesion
cohesion held together by hydrogen bonds |
plants: upward water transport |
adhesion: water to other types of molecules (plant wall) |
Saturated fat vs. Unsaturated fat
Saturated fat: |
Unsaturated fat: |
no double bonds |
double bonds |
max number of hydrogens |
tail kinks at double bond |
solid at room temp |
liquid at room temp |
animal fats (bacon, grease, lard, butter) |
plant fats (corn, peanut, olive oil) |
|
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