Types of data
Primary data |
Data collected by the researcher themselves i.e. experiments / surveys / observations. |
- Relevant Information - Can Control methodology |
- Time Consuming - Can be costly dependant on the methods used |
Secondary data |
Data collected by other people & organisations |
- Already gathered so quicker - Usually cheaper to access |
- Information may be old and inaccurate - Questionable whether it can be applied |
Quantitative data |
Numerical, statistical information that is objective. Answers factual questions instead of giving reasonings. |
- Best for representativeness and generalisability - Broader study - greater number of subjects |
- Harder to analyse and give reasonings - Can't explore why |
Qualitative data |
Type of data that is focused around opinion, feelings and why something is happening. Complex data and harder to analyse. Subjective Data. |
- Detailed information that explores reasonings- Based on human experience which gives better validity |
- Longer process to analyse the data as it all varies due to subjective nature If not careful,- researcher can have a negative impact on the results - behaviour |
Positivism vs interpretivism
POSITIVSM - Theory appraoch based on natural and factual causes - idea surrounds objectivity and positivists want statistical, quantitative data that reveals the truth. |
INTERPRETIVSM - Approach which tries to see explanations from sujects perspective. They want Verstehen (Meaning) and qualitative data with reasons as to why something happened. |
Preferred research methods: Quantitative, Offical Statistics, Social Surveys, / Unstructured Interviews / Questionnaires |
Preferred research methods: Qualitative, Personal Documents, Participant Observation, Unstructured Interviews |
Stages of research
1. Choice of topic |
Deciding whether the research will focus on • social problems • sociological problems |
They need to know what they’re studying |
2. Aim |
Considering the main research goal in their study |
It is important to have a research goal |
3. Operationalise research values |
Breaking down the hypothesis or aim into concrete values that can be measured |
Precise measurement of social phenomena cannot occur without it and it allows others to replicate your research |
4. Choose target population |
Choosing people with the characteristics you want to research |
It is important to have a defined research population |
Stages of research (cont)
5. Choose sampling method |
Choosing between random and non-random sampling |
The sampling method is crucial to ensure the sample is generalisable |
6. Choose research method |
Choosing between qualitative and quantitative methods |
It is important to choose the correct research method for your aims |
7. Conduct research |
Carry out your chosen method on your sample |
Carrying out the method correctly improves the validity of your data |
8. Analyse data |
Looking for patterns in the data |
Spotting patterns correctly can allow for new discoveries |
Ethics and access
1.Informed consent – research subjects should be fully aware of the study and its aims |
2. No deceit – sociologists should not keep information or lie about the purpose of the study |
3. Privacy is kept – the privacy of the research subjects should be safeguarded as much as possible |
4. Protection from harm – protection from physical harm, emotional harm and professional harm |
5. No illegal or immoral behaviour – sociologists need to avoid situations where they could be drawn into illegal behaviour |
Access – some groups have the power to resist sociologists such as the rich and powerful therefore, data on these groups is usually secondary data using statistics. |
Gatekeeping – A gatekeeper has contact with the research subjects and will check any interview for sensitive subjects |
Funding – This may affect the research method, if lots of funding is available the researcher may employ a team and be able to complete in-depth interviews, if funding is low the researcher may need to choose a cheaper option such as postal questionnaires. |
Triangulation strengths and weaknesses
• The methods cancel out the disadvantages and allow sociologists to guarantee validity |
• Can be expensive and time-consuming depending on the methods chosen |
• Can reveal new information and hypotheses |
• The methods have to complement one another and cancel out the disadvantages |
• Provides a better understanding of the problem |
• More skills are needed to analyse the vast amounts of data |
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Sampling methods
Random: names are picked randomly from a list |
• Lack of bias as it is randomly chosen • Simplicity as there are no additional steps |
• Time-consuming and expensive due to the information needed • Sample selection bias can occur when a sample chosen is not representative |
Systematic: randomly choosing a number and picking every 10th e.g. 7,17,27 e.c.t |
• Most representative as it relies in statistical odds • It is easy to execute and understand • Provides control |
• Large sample needed to ensure that statistically it is likely to be representative • Not truly random • by chance might get same results. |
Stratified: dividing the population into sampling frames and using systematic sampling |
• Relatively small sample • can be used with confidence that it's still representative • Requires a smaller sample than random sampling |
• Requires sampling frame which includes details of significant characteristics of population being studied • Timely • May take a lot of researchers |
Snowball: When one person leads you to another |
• Used mainly with groups who are hard to identify or access (e.g. criminals) • The process is cheap, simple and cost-efficient. • This sampling technique needs little planning and fewer workforce compared to other sampling techniques. |
• Very unlikely to be truly representative since based on people who have contact with one another • Representativeness of the sample is not guaranteed. The researcher has no idea of the true distribution of the population and of the sample. • Sampling bias is also a fear of researchers when using this sampling technique. Initial subjects tend to nominate people that they know well. Because of this, it is highly possible that the subjects share the same traits and characteristics, thus, it is possible that the sample that the researcher will obtain is only a small subgroup of the entire population. |
Sampling methods (cont)
Volunteer: Participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert |
• More ethical because participants have approached researcher • May have an interest in the subject so they are less likely to give biased information • Easy to do |
• Could take a long time to get enough people to do experiment • Rules out certain occupations and types of people - unrepresentative • Expensive to place advert |
Quota: Like stratified sampling but the researcher decides how many people in each group are involved |
• Advantages of stratified random sampling but can be conducted without variables being available from sampling frame • Useful for groups with no sampling frame • Common in opinion polls |
• Accessibility of potential respondents affects their chances of being included in the sample. • May be less representative than random and stratified random sampling • Results may be distorted and not representative |
Purposive: Involves researchers choosing individuals or cases from a particular place that reflect the nature of their research |
• Tends to be easiest and quickest way of collecting a sample • may lead to a good response rate • Is affordable |
• Makes no attempt to be truly representative, so can't generalise from the findings • Is open to bias • It is vulnerable to researcher judgement |
Opportunity: Taking the sample from people who are available at the time the study is being carried out and fit the criteria you're looking for |
• Less time consuming • Easy to use • Cheap |
• Biased • Cannot be generalised • Researcher has control over selection so may be subjective to their views |
Statistics strengths and weaknesses
• They are often extremely easy and cheap to access as they are usually online |
• They may not be representative of the wider population as they are collected by independent bodies |
• They are often up-to-date so give sociologists an understanding of modern behaviour |
• They can be politically massaged to make a country look better |
• They often form the basis of hypotheses that motivate research |
• They tell us very little about the human stories that underpin them so are disliked by interpretivists |
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Questionnaire strengths and weaknesses
• Used for reaching larger and more representative samples as it can be given to hundreds of people |
• Many people do not respond to questionnaires which can cause low response or no response and can undermine validity |
• Postal questionnaires are useful when the research population is geographically spread out |
• The questions can be biased or leading |
• They are cheaper and less time-consuming than other methods |
• It is difficult to motivate people to return postal questionnaires |
Structured interviews strengths and weaknesses
• Positivists regard the method as scientific as it primarily produces qualitative data |
• They are artificial and not in everyday life so may give false information as they are suspicious |
• The use of closed questions creates lots of quantitative data which can be converted into charts |
• They are inflexible so sociologists cannot focus on other things if they hear something interesting |
• Because of the interview schedule, structured interviews are quick and can allow for a larger sample |
• Interpretivists believe they do not produce true data |
Unstructured interviews strengths and weaknesses
• They allow the researcher to build rapport which allows the participants to open up more which can enrich data |
• Unstructured interviews create a lot of data and require the researcher to be selective of what they publish |
• Unstructured interviews allow the researcher to explain more about the research so they are useful for researching unknown groups |
• The qualitative data is difficult to analyse as there are no pre-coded answers |
• They provide richer, more detailed data which is highly valid |
• Studies that use unstructured interviews use less participants which undermines the representativeness to positivists |
Semi-structured interview
• Allows the researcher to explain the research and gain informed consent so is ethical |
• It is time consuming and expensive compared to other methods |
• Interpretivists see the data as valid as it allows the researcher to understand the world through the participants eyes |
• Not reliable as it is hard to replicate |
• Feminists argue this method gives women an opportunity to express how they really feel |
• Positivists reject this see it as unscientific this method lacks objectivity and reliability and fails to produce representative data that can be generalised to the wider population. |
Observations strengths and weaknesses
• The researcher sees things through the eyes of the group so the researcher experiences ‘verstehen’ or empathy which results in highly valid data |
• Overt forms of research are subject to the researcher effect which may result in the group acting less naturally as the researcher is there which undermines validity |
• Often what people say and what they do is different, people may lie or not be aware of their actions in interviews |
• Some observers get too attached to the research group and show bias towards them reporting the data incorrectly and losing objectivity |
• Observation can be supplemented with unstructured interviews to add to the validity |
• Covert observation is highly unethical |
Ethnography strengths and weaknesses
• Ethnography is usually long-term and in-depth as well as qualitative so produces lots of rich data |
• It usually is a study of a specific group and is therefore not representative of wider society |
• It allows the researcher to achieve verstehen with the group they study which means they are more likely to open up |
• It is subjective to the researcher’s opinions so could be biased |
• The rapport built means it is high in validity |
Positivists dislike the data as it is not reliable or analysable |
Content analysis strengths and weaknesses
• It is very cheap as all that is needed is media products |
• It can be very time-consuming |
• It is a comparative analysis that can be longitudinal |
• It is very subjective as the categories depend on what the researcher thinks is important |
• Quantitative content analysis is reliable as it can be repeated by other sociologists |
• Sociologists have been accused of analysing text out of context |
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