Characteristics (C) / Assumptions (A) of Research
Control (C) |
Holding constant or eliminating extraneous variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships. |
Operationalism (C) |
Defining scientific concepts by the specific operations used to measure them. This includes multiple operationalism, where constructs are represented by multiple measures. |
Replication (C) |
The reproduction of results from one study in additional studies to verify findings. |
Uniformity or Regularity in Nature (A) |
The assumption that there are consistent and lawful relationships in nature. |
Reality in Nature (A) |
The belief that the phenomena studied by scientists are real and observable. |
Discoverability (A) |
The assumption that these regularities and realities can be discovered through scientific investigation. |
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Research Approaches
Research Settings |
Field Experiments, Laboratory Experiments, Internet Epxeriments |
Field experiments (RS) |
Artificiliaty not a problem, but cannot control extraneous variables like in a lab |
Laboratory experiments (RS) |
Ability to control extranueous variables, but introduce artificiality and poor ecological validity |
Internet experiments (RS) |
Easy access, large samples and low cost, but lack of experimenter control, self-selection, drop out and multiple participant submissions |
Descriptive Research (T) |
Observing, recording and describing behaviour |
Relational/Predictive Research (T) |
Describing and detecting/predicting relationships |
Causal Research (T) |
Describing behaviour, predicting relationships AND exploring cause-and-effect |
Qualitative Research (A) |
Non-numerical, interpretive approach |
Quantiative Research (A) |
Numerical data |
Mixed Methods (A) |
Mixes Quantitative and Qualitative Research for more complete account |
Quantiative Experimental |
Before making causal claim, three criteria: Co-variation (changes must be correlated), Temporal ordering (cause must precede effect), no Alternate Explanations |
Between-subjects design |
Different participants exposed to each level of IV |
Within-subjects design |
All participants exposed to all levels of the IV |
Ads/Disads of Experimental Research |
Causal inference, ability to manipulate variables, control |
Does not test effects of extraneous variables, artificiality, inadequate method of scientific inquiry |
Quantitative Non-experimental |
No manipulation of the IV, descriptive research, identifies factors/relationships to form hypotheses to then be tested through experimental |
Types of Quan Non-Experimental |
Correlational study, Natural manipulation, cross-sectional and longitudinal |
Ads/Dis-Ads of Each Type |
Research objectives of description and prediction, Research objectives of description and prediction, Multiple Groups/Time points to consider |
Sometimes false assumption of causation, false assumption of causation, cross-sectional/longitudinal do not always produce similar results |
Strenghts/Weaknesses of Qualitative Research |
Many different data collection methods, good for describing/understanding, provides data to develop theory |
Difficult to Generalise, varying interpretations, objective hypothesis testing procedures not always used |
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Six Data Collection Methods
Observations |
Researcher watches and records events/behaviours. Naturalistic or Laboratory Observations |
Provides firsthand information, allows for study of natural behaviour, captures non-verbal cues, usually exploratory/open-ended |
Reactive effect if repsondents know they are being observed, investigator effects (personal bias), data analysis is time-consuming |
Questionnaires |
Measures participants' opinions and provides self-reported demographic info. Closed-ended or open-ended questionnaires |
Efficient for large sample, standardised format for easy comparison |
Response bias, limited depth of info, potential for misinterpretation |
Existing Data |
Collection of data that was left behind/used for something different before the current research. Documents, physical data, etc. |
cost-effective, time-saving, allows for longitudinal studies |
data may be incomplete/outdated, lack of control over data collection methods |
Interview |
Can be through multiple mediums (face-to-face, phone, etc). Can be synchronous (happens in real-time) or asynchronous (over-time) |
Good for measuring attitudes, allows for probing, in-depth info, useful for hypothesis testing |
People might not recall important info, reactive effects, investigator effects, expensive and time-conusming |
Focus Groups |
Collection of data in a group situation where moderator leads discussion with a small group |
Useful for exploring ideas and concepts, provides window into internal thinking, in-depth info, can be taped |
Can be ex, difficult to find good moderator, reactive and investigator effects, measurement validity low |
Tests |
Data collection instruments designed to measure something. Standardised (existing, tested in previous research) or Researcher-constructed (new, often specifically developed to test for variables) |
Provides measures of many characteristics, usually alr developed, availability of data to reference, easy data analysis |
Can be ex, reactive participant effects, might not be appropriate for certain samples, open-ended Qs not avail |
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