What is Psychology
Psychology: |
The study of mental and behavioural processes |
theory-driven: |
uses theories to explain behaviour |
empirical: |
based on research |
multi-level: |
explained by the brain, the individual, and the group |
contextual: |
psychological perspectives continue to evolve, which impacts work in psychology |
Theories
Structuralism |
Founded by Wilhelm Wundt |
Focus on human cognitive behaviour |
Functionalism |
Founded by William James |
Focus on function of behaviours |
Psychoanalysis |
Founded by Sigmund Freud |
Focuses on the study on the human mind (subconscious) |
Behaviourism |
Founding by John B. Watson |
Focus on the concept of observable behaviour |
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
- Father of experimental psychology |
- Established the first psychology lab in 1879 Germany |
- Used empirically-driven experiments |
- Studied consciousness |
- Voluntarism behaviours are motivated |
- Developed structuralism |
Labeled brain
Brainstem (Medulla) = breathing & heartbeat
Reticular formation = arousal, sleep, filters
stimuli
Cerebellum = voluntary movement
limbic system (Hippo HAT)
- HIPPOcampus = memory
- Hypothalamus = hunger, thirst, sexual
behavior
- - pituitary gland = hormones
- Amygdala = fear, anger
- Thalamus = touch, taste, sight, hear
William James (1842-1910)
- Established the first psychology lab in America at Harvard University |
- Wrote the first psychology textbook “Principles of Psychology” (1890) |
- Functionalism sees consciousness as a fluid stream rather than fixed elements, uses empirical methods that focuses on the cause and effects of behaviour |
Emphasis was also - placed on studying animals, children, and individuals with mental disorders |
Experiment Terms
Independent variable |
variable that is being manipulated |
Dependent variable |
variable that is being measured/ changed by the independent variable |
Operationalize/Operational definition |
how researchers decide to measure our variables |
Population |
The entire group that is of interest to researchers |
Sample |
A portion of the population that is selected for the study, Must represent the population |
Random selection |
everyone in the population of interest has an equal chance of selection |
Sampling bias |
selecting a group that is likely to confirm your hypothesis |
Therapy
Counterconditioning |
Conditioning a new response incompatible with old |
Systematic desensitization |
Relaxation replaces anxiety or systematically |
Flooding |
Go straight into the fearful situation. CR is extinguished |
Aversive conditioning |
Unpleasent responce associated (alcohol + drug creating nausea UR & PR) |
Token economy |
Given token (poker chip) when desired behaviour preformed. Tokens cashed on for tangible rewards |
Therapy
Counterconditioning |
Conditioning a new response incompatible with old |
Systematic desensitization |
Relaxation replaces anxiety or systematically |
Flooding |
Go straight into the fearful situation. CR is extinguished |
Aversive conditioning |
Unpleasent responce associated (alcohol + drug creating nausea UR & PR) |
Token economy |
Given token (poker chip) when desired behaviour preformed. Tokens cashed on for tangible rewards |
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The Goals of Psychology
- Describe |
- Explain |
- Predict |
- Control |
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Research Methods
independent variable = cause
experimental group = exposed to cause
control group = not exposed to cause
dependent variable = effect (measures how subjects behave)
blind study = subjects don't know if they get drug or placebo
double-blind study = subjects & researchers don't know who gets drug/placebo
correlation coefficient = describes strength of relationship |
Nature V.S Nurture
Nature |
Genetics determine our behaviour |
Nurture |
Our eviroment and life upbringings determine our behaviour |
Limbic System
Hippocampus |
(campus = learning/mem‐ ories) |
Hypothalamus |
(FFFF = Fight, Flight, Feed, Mating) |
Amygdala |
(emotions) |
Thalamus |
(Tell 'em = senses (except for smell)) |
Memory Terms
Recall |
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier (fill in blank) |
Recognition |
A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned (multiple choice) |
Relearning |
A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time |
Explicit memory |
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" |
Implicit memory |
retention independent of conscious recollection |
Procedural memory |
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things |
Eposodic memory |
Memory of personal experiences (most common impairment) |
Branches of Psychology
Clinical counselling and psychology |
Therapists |
Academic psychology |
Professors, researchers |
Applied psychology |
Work in schools, marketing firms, research institutions, and so forth, applying psychological skills to real-life situations |
Sensory Memory
Implicit (procedural) |
being aware of how to do something without consciously knowing how |
Explicit (declarative) |
being aware of what you know |
Ionic |
Brief photographic memory of an image |
Echoic |
brief memory of an auditory stimulus |
Flashbulb |
vivid memories of emotionally charged events |
Working |
short-term memory |
Psychological Disorders - Origins
Medical |
caused by biological reasons (injury, genetics, drugs) |
Psychoanalytic |
childhood conflicts, unconscious, misdirected anger |
Cognitive |
patterns of thinking are abnormal, success because of others (luck, generous), fail because of self (stupid, no talent) |
Learn/Behavior |
problem behavior is the problem, some type of classical condit‐ ioning or reinforcement has occurred for behavior to continue |
Jean Piaget
Cognitive Development |
Sensorimotor stage (0-2) can't differentiate self from environment |
Preoperational (2) stable world, language, symbols, fantasy/reality, object perman‐ ence, no logical reasoning, lack conser‐ vation, egocentric |
Concrete op. (7-11) logic rules, concrete, cause/effect, role taking |
formal op. (12-) logic of science, abstract thinking, metaphors |
Assimilation = interpret sights based on current understanding |
Accommodation = changed understanding |
Equilibrium = balance |
Disequilibrium = changes in child's unders‐ tanding of world |
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Brain
Frontal |
Responsible for: control thinking, planning, organizing, problem-solving, short-term memory and movement. |
Parietal |
Responsible for: interpret feeling, known as sensory information. The lobes process taste, texture and temperature. |
Temporal |
Responsible for: process information from your senses of smell, taste and sound. They also play a role in memory storage. |
Occipital |
Responsible for: process images from your eyes and connect them to the images stored in your memory. This allows you to recognize images. |
Edward Titchner (1867-1927)
- Introspection: careful, reflective and systematic observation of the details of mental processes |
- Structuralism looks at the elements of consciousness, the goal was to describe observable mental processes rather than to explain, predict, or control |
- The principle was rejected by other psychologists, but some elements survived: |
• Psychologists should focus on observable events |
• Scientific study should focus on simple elements as building blocks of complex experience |
Gestalt Psychology
- States that consciousness cannot be broken down into elements |
- We perceive things as whole perceptual units |
- The whole is greater than the sum of its parts |
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
- Believed that behavior was influenced by our unconscious desires and conflicts |
- Psychoanalysis aims to resolve unconscious conflicts |
Important Psychologists
Edward Thorndike |
believed that studying animals will help understand human behaviour |
Ivan Pavlov |
classical conditioning; associating a stimuli to a response |
John B. Watson |
“Little Albert Experiment;” proving that people can be classically conditioned |
B.K. Skinner |
operant conditioning; positive/negative reinforcement to shape behaviour (increase/decrease certain behaviours) |
Albert Bandura |
social observation; observing and mirroring behaviour is a way of learning |
Descriptive research
Case studies |
An intensive study of one person |
Advantages: Helps develop early ideas about phenomena |
Disadvantages: Researcher bias, You cannot generalize your results to all people |
Naturalistic Observation |
observing natural behaviours |
Advantages: more reflective on actual human behaviour |
Disadvantages: research bias, Hawthorne effect; people act differently when they are aware that they are being observed |
Surveys |
questionnaire/interview |
Advantages: Gather information that can be obtained from other methods, May be able to measure relationship strength between variables |
Disadvantages: Participant bias, Direction of relationship between variables is unknown |
Freud - Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral stage |
Ages 0-1 |
2. Anal stage |
Ages 2-3 |
3. Phallic stage |
Ages 3-5 |
4. Latency stage |
Ages 5 - puberty |
5. Genital stage |
Ages beyond puberty |
Memory
Sensory |
Fleeting awareness of what senses detect |
Short term |
(working) keep information long enough to solve problems |
Long term |
Unlimited storage |
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