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Biology 1 Cheat Sheet (DRAFT) by

all lessons of 3rd quarter

This is a draft cheat sheet. It is a work in progress and is not finished yet.

UNIT I: Cell

All living things are made up of cell
Most cells are measured between 1 and 100 μm diameter
Uni-ce­llular organisms
mostly consist of bacteria.
Multi-­cel­lular
compose of many types of cell.

Scientist

Robert Hooke
- one of the pioneers in studying cells create his own micros­­cope.
 
- an english scientist
 
- one of the first person to perceive cell by slicing a very thin piece of cork and observe under micros­cope.
 
- he observed, drew, and described what he saw and named it "­cel­ls" which derived from Latin word cella, meaning "­small room" also cellulae which means six-sided cell of a honeycomb. All of this are written in his book Microg­raphia (1665).
 
- he only saw the cell wall for cork cells are not alive.
 
Anton van Leeuwe­nhoek
- dutch natura­list, who was an expert in grinding lenses, created a microscope that can magnify things up to 270X.
 
- observing drops of rain water, he observed minute living organisms that he named "­­An­i­m­al­­cul­­es­".
 
Robert Brown
- in 1831, he discovered nucleus in plant cell. The nucleus contains the genetic inform­ation in an organism.
 
- discovered the carrier of genetic materials called "­Nuc­leu­s".
 
Felix Dujardin
- in 1835, French biologist, discovered the semi-t­ran­sparent substance he called Sarcode which later changed to protop­lasm.
 
- discovered the "­pro­top­las­m".
 
Mathias Schleiden
- a German botanist, scruti­nized and proposed his study about the plant.
 
- he concluded that all plants are made up of cell.
 
Theodor Schwann
- in 1839, a German zoologist also observed and studied about the animal parts.
 
- he concluded that all animals are composed of cells.
 
Rudolf Virchow
- in 1858, a German physician states that "All living cells come from other existing cells."­
 
- this proof justify that the creation of new cells were came from other living cells.

Cell Theory

l The Cell Theory states that:

1. Cells are the building block and the functional unit of all living organisms it includes the life cycle, metabolic activi­ties, and the ability to transfer character traits.
2. All living organisms are containing one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from the pre-ex­isting cells.

l Modern Cell theory:

1. All living organisms are composed of trillions of cell in their body.
2. Cell is fundam­ental and building blocks of all living organisms.
3. Cells come from other cells by cell division.
4. The cell consists of genetic material which is passed from generation up to the last genera­tion.
5. All cells are made up of the same in chemical compos­ition.

Cell Morpho­logy: Cell Structure and Function

Organelles

I Due to advanc­ement of technology the study of cell and its structure broadens, this helps us to understand how cells work and how it affects our daily life.
I Also, we are now able to dissect and identify the different part of cell and its functions.
I This part of cell are called ORGANELLES.

Three major parts: Basic features of all cell type

Cell Membra­ne/­Plasma Membrane
Cell membrane is made up of semipe­rmeable membrane that actively facili­tates the entrance and exit of materials in and out of the cell.
 
This structure is compose of two layer of phosph­olipids (Phosp­holipid bilayer) fats, carboh­ydrates and protein materials.
Functions:
Provide support and maintain cell shape.
 
Regulates the flow of material inside and outside the cell.
 
Act as receptor site and functional carrier of molecule.
 
And provide identi­fic­ation boundary.
Cell wall
This is the outermost layer of plant, fungal, and bacterial cell. (Not present in animal cell) .
 
Gives additional support to the cell, prevent water loss and enclose the cell to avoid the invasion of pathogens.

Three major parts: Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm
Lies between the cell membrane and nucleus.
 
Consist of a jelly-like substance.
 
This is a place where cell expansion, growth, metabolic activities and cell function happens.
 
Also consist of cytosol, organelles and inclus­ions.
Cytosol
Semi-t­ran­sparent fluid present in which organelles are suspended. It also gives support and holds the organelles in the cell.
 

Cytopl­asmic Organelles

Ribosomes
re small rounded, dark bodies, which contain proteins and RNA.
 
They connect amino acids to form chains of proteins.
 
Ribosomes does not have a membrane.
 
Can be found in cytoplasm and Rough Endopl­asmic Reticulum.
Endopl­asmic Reticulum
Interc­onn­ected tubes and flattened sacs (ciste­rnae) that transports vesicles to carry different substa­nces.​
 
Comes in two types: ​ Smooth ER​ and Rough ER
Rough ER
Has a ribosomes in its flattened body. Also manufa­cture and synthesize proteins.
Smooth ER
Has a NO ribosomes in its flattened body. It detoxify drugs and synthesize non-pr­otein substance.
Golgi Apparatus
A.K.A. Golgi Bodies, Golgi complex and Dictyo­somes.
 
Stacks of flattened sacs that carries protein from RER to the outside part of the cell.
 
Contains enzymes that modify protein, packages and secreted protein.
 
Vesicles are the small of packs of organic materials.
Mitoch­ondria
It is known as the "­Power house of the cell".
 
It has two layers of membranous sacs, the inside membrane is enfolds to form cristae and encloses by a matrix.
 
This is the location wherein energy produces by synthesis of Adenosine Tripho­sphate.
 
Organelle respon­sible for cellular respir­ation, conversion of energy origin­ating from simple sugar and lipids into ATP energy. It regulates cellular metabo­lism.
Vacuoles
Single membranous sac that function as:
 
Storage of materials and water
 
Releases cellular waste products
 
Conducts interc­ellular digestion
 
Maintains hydros­tatic pressure.
Vacuoles in Plants
Plays large a vital role in turgor pressure and serves as for the storage of water.
Vacuoles in Animals
Relatively small compare to the vacuoles of plant, for storage of food products.
Lysosomes
These single­-me­mbr­anous organelles also digest damage parts of the cell down by nucleic acids and some lipids. The digested products can reuse again by the cell for the synthesis of cellular materials.
 
Are known as "­sca­venger of the cell“
 
Membranous bag structure which contain strong hydrolytic enzymes use to digest macrom­ole­cules.
Apoptosis
The programmed of cell destru­ction with the use of lysosomal enzymes is important in the process of cell develo­pment.
Glycocalyx
A.K.A. Cell Coat it is located in the outer part of cell membrane of animal cell.
 
It functions for cell recogn­ition and cellular adhesion.
 
It is also respon­sible for tissue organi­zation.
Peroxi­somes
Are membranous sacs that containing oxidative enzymes for the function of detoxi­fying harmful substance.
Cytosk­eleton
Composed of collective network of protein filame­ntous, thread­-like structure called microt­ubules, microf­ila­ments which produce a strong ability to support and maintain the cell shape.
 
It is the fundam­ental framework of the cytoplasm containing protein filament that assist for the organelles to move inside.
Plastids
The largest, rounded membranous organelles that contain DNA usually seen in plants but not common in animal cell.
 
A double­-me­mbr­anous structure enclosed by a thylakoid membrane consists of chloro­plasts which contain chloro­phyll use by the plants for making coloring pigments in their food through the process of photos­ynt­hesis.
Thylakoid
Flattened membranous sacs.
Grana
Stacked arrang­ement of thylakoid.
Stroma
Space outside the thylakoid which contains enzymes for carboh­ydrate synthesis.
Centrosome and Centriole
The centriole is a small, fibrous structure and cylind­rical shape having a mass dense of protoplasm found near the nucleus.
 
Contains nine pairs of peripheral microt­ubules orthog­onally arrange to produce the wall of the cylinder.
 
Present only in animal cell, a pair of centrioles are found inside centrosome which replicates when the cell divides.

Different Plastids and their coloring pigments

Cell headqu­arters: Part of Nucleus

Nuclear Envelope
Consists of two-me­mbr­anous layer that covers the entire nucleus.
 
It contains thread­-like materials called chromatin which is located in a darker area of the nucleus.
 
The nuclear membrane controls the continuous flow of materials inside and outside the nucleus.
**Nucl­eoplasm
Or nuclear sap, contains fluid substance that suspended in the internal part forming the protoplasm of the nucleus also known as Karyoplasm.
Nucleoulus
A spherical shape made up of granular structures that found inside the nucleus containing Ribosomal Nucleic Acid (RNA) which rich of protein materials for the protein synthesis and carrying hereditary traits.
Chromo­somes
These are long thread stands associated with protein materials that suddenly coiled, appear thicker, denser and shorter when cells divide.
 
Carries DNA
 
Also bounded with protein which serves as packaging of deoxyr­ibo­nucleic acid (DNA) that controls the hereditary charac­ter­istics.
Flagella
Cytopl­asmic projec­tions that made of two central and nine pairs of peripheral microt­ubules which extend from surface of cell; covered by plasma membrane; many single­-celled organisms use them for propulsion and other function of flagella for cell locomo­tion.
Cilia
Relatively short projec­tions that extend from the surface of cell and allowing the materials to move on surface of some tissues in form of waves.
 

Prokar­yotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

- The distin­ction between prokar­yotes and eukaryotes is considered to be the most important distin­ction among groups of organisms. Eukaryotic cells contain membra­ne-­bound organe­lles, such as the nucleus, while prokar­yotic cells do not.

- Differ­ences in the cellular structure of prokar­yotes and eukaryotes include the presence of mitoch­ondria and chloro­plasts, the cell wall, and the structure of chromo­somal DNA.

- Prokar­yotes were the only form of life on Earth for millions of years until more compli­cated eukaryotic cells came into being through the process of evolution.

Prokar­yotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Charac­ter­istics of Prokar­yotic Cells
Charac­ter­istics of Eukaryotic Cells
Less complex
More complex
No nucleus
True nucleus
Mostly unicel­lular
Either unicel­lular or multic­ellular
Bacterial cell wall – Peptid­oglycan
Plant cell wall – cellulose Fungi – chitin
Has a long single strand of DNA plus
Has two to hundreds of chromo­somes per cell
70’s ribosomes
80’s ribosomes
Asexual reprod­uction by fission, Sexual production unkown
Asexual reprod­uction by mitosis and Sexual reprod­uction by fusion of gametes
Kingdom Monera (bacteria and cyanob­act­eria)
Kingdom of Animalia, Kingdom of Plantae and Kingdom of Fungi

Prokar­yotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Cell Structure
Prokar­yotic Cell
Eukaryotic Cell
Cell membrane
Yes
Yes
Cell wall
Yes
Depends on species
Centrioles
No
yes
Chromo­somes
One long DNA strand
Many
Cilia or Flagella
Yes, simple
Yes, complex
Endopl­asmic Reticulum
No
Yes
Golgi complex
No
Yes
Lysosomes
No
Common
Mitoch­ondria
No
Yes
Nucleus
No
Yes

Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells

Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Has no cell wall.
Has cell wall.
Relatively smaller.
Relatively larger.
Plastids are usually absent.
Plastids are present.
Many small vacuoles.
Has large central vacuoles.
Nucleus at the center.
Nucleus lies on one side of cytoplasm.
Centrioles are practi­cally present.
Centrioles are normally absent.
Lysosomes are present.
Lysosomes are absent.

Cell Types

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial Tissue
Form the covering of the surfaces of the body located both in internal and external parts.
 
The cells making up the epithelium are often closely bound to one another through specia­lized structures called Tight Junctions.
Location:
External skin
 
Inner lining of the mouth
 
Digestive tract
 
Urogenital tract
 
Lining hollow part of every organ such as heart, lungs, eyes, ears
 
Secretory glands
 
Ventri­cular system of the brain and central canals of the spinal cord
 
And the uppermost layer of the body, the skin.
Simple Epithelium
Epithelial tissue consist of single layer.
Stratified Epithelium
Epithelial tissue composed of many layers.
Two groups of Epithelial Tissue are Simple Epithelium and Stratified Epithe­lium, but sometimes epithelial tissues are group by: cell layer, cell shape and its function.

Epithelial Tissues

Squamous Cell
Squamous epithelia are found in places where rapid diffusion is required. It is also called pavement epithelium due to its tile-like appear­ance.
Descri­ption
Thin, scaly – look.
 
Flattened on the surface.
 
Fried egg appear­ance.
 
With rounded nucleus
Location
Kidney glomeruli
 
Air sacs
 
Lining of heart
 
Blood vessels
 
Lymphatic vessels
 
Lining of the ventral body cavities
Function
Diffusion
 
Filtration
 
Secretion
 
Protection
Cuboidal Cell
An epithelial cell shaped like a cube. This is one of the closely packed cells forming the epithe­lium.
Descri­ption
Dice-s­hape/ Square like shape.
 
With large and spherical nucleus.
Location
Kidney Tubules ducts and secretory position of small glands
 
Egg cells
 
Sperm cells
Function
Secretion
Columnar Cell
Are epithelial cells which have elongated shape with a height about 4 times the width. They are normal part of functional breast ducts but sometimes they develop in unusual ways or grow more rapidly than one would expect.
Descri­ption
Taller rather than wide.
 
Column in shape long and rectan­gular shape with oblong nuclei or elongated nucleus contain goblet cells.
Location
Digestive Tubes
 
Gallbl­adder
 
Excretory Ducts
 
Some glands
 
Bronchi
 
Uterine tubes
 
Uterus
 
Nose
 
Ears
 
Tongues
Function
Absorption
 
Secretion
 
Reception
 
Sensory
Ciliated Columnar Cell
Moves mucus and other substances via cilia and is found in the upper respir­atory tract. They are the primary target of infection for common cold viruses such as corona virus, influenza virus and rhinov­irus.
Descri­ption
Fine hair like projec­tion.
Location
Nose
 
Uterus
 
Fallopian tubes
 
Egg cells
Function
Move mucus and other substances across the cell, ciliary action.
Pseudo­str­atified columnar cell
Are found in places such as the trachea and upper respir­atory tract, where their cilia and mucous secretion help collet foreign materials so you can cough or sneeze them out.
Descri­ption
False strati­fic­ation or appear­ance.
 
Free surfaces with hair like projec­tion.
 
Nuclei seen at different level that contain goblet cells.
Location
Ducts of large glands
 
Ductus difference
 
Trachea
 
Throat
 
Mouth
Function
Filtration
 
Absorption
 
Secretion
 
Ciliary Action

Connective Tissue

Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is use to connect, bind, holds, and support one part to another part of the body.
 
This is the most vascul­arized and widely distri­buted inside the body.
 
Supporting the muscles to produce movements, protect the internal organs, and connects the tissues.
 
Charac­terized by a large percentage of living cells and non living material known as matrix which is made of ground substance and fibrous structure.
 
Cells of connective tissue is widely apart with each other in a form of matrix.
Bone Tissue
Bone cell (osteo­cytes)
 
Matrix: Hard or calcified
 
It support, protects, provides lever , storage, hemato­poiesis (Blood produc­tion).
Blood Tissue
Red blood cell (eryth­roc­ytes), white blood cell (leuco­cytes), and platelets.
 
Matrix: fluid matrix (plasma).
 
To transport materials.
Cartilage Tissue
Chondr­ocytes
 
Matrix: rubbery collagen, elastic fibrous secretion of chondr­oitin substance.
 
To support and helps to provide struct­ures.
Hyaline Cartilage
Chondr­ocytes
 
Matrix: firm cartil­aginous fiber.
 
To support and cushion proper­ties.
Fibroc­art­ilage
Chondr­ocyte
 
Matrix: Collag­enous fibers
 
Absorb compre­ssive shock
Elastic Cartilage
Chondr­ocytes
 
Matrix: elastic fiber.
 
To support the external.
Areolar (loose) Tissue
Mast cell, WBC, fibroblast and macrop­hages.
 
Matrix: Collagen fiber, elastic fiber and gel-like matrix.
 
Holds and conveys tissue and organ.
Adipose Tissue
Fat cells (adipo­cytes)
 
Matrix: Reticular structure with collagen fiber.
 
Storage of lipids for energy building.

Muscle Tissue

Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells that designed for contra­ction and movement.
 
These can help us to do work.
 
Muscle cells are also called the muscle fibers.
 
Inside the muscle fiber consists of sarcoplasm known as the cell membrane, sarcolemma as the cytoplasm of the muscle cell and the cell body that containing nucleus located at the center.
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Striated Voluntary Muscle
 
Long cylind­rical shape, bundle form, many nucleus, many striat­ions.
 
Muscle attached to skeleton.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Striated Involu­ntary Muscle
 
Short branching shape, have few striat­ions, single or two nucleus.
 
Muscle of heart.
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Non-st­riated Involu­ntary Muscle
 
Spindle in shape, no striat­ions, single nucleus.
 
Muscle of visceral organs.

Nervous Tissue

Nervous Tissue
Consists of two types of cells: Conducting cells and Supportive cells.
 
Primary function is to receive stimuli and send the impulse to the and brain. The brain sends back a response via the nerves.
Two Types of Nervous Tissue
Conducting Cells
Neurons are specia­lized to transmit inform­ation throughout the body.
Supporting Cells
Transport nutrients from the blood vessels to neurons.
 
Guard against toxin by creating barrier to harmful substa­nces.
Neuroglia
Surround neurons and provide support for and insulation between them.
 
Glial cells are the most abundant cell types in the central nervous system.
Neurons
Are interc­onn­ected to transmit signal throughout the Nervous system.
Consist of two parts:
1. Cell body or Soma
Contains the nucleus. Controls the activity of neuron.
2. Axon
Conducts impulse away the soma.
Neurons are classified according to function and structure.
Base on Function
Afferent or Sensory Neuron
Sensory receptor to CNS.
Efferent or Motor Neuron
CNS to viscera, muscle or gland.
Intern­eurons
Connection between neurons.
Base on Structure
Unipolar
Single process emerging from the cell body.
Bipolar
One dendrite and one axon.
Multipolar
Many dendrites and one axon.
Integr­ation and commun­ication are the two major functions of nervous tissue.