Lifespan Development COMP Cheat Sheet Cheat Sheet (DRAFT) by Moomooe

Cross-­Cul­tural Psychology: The systematic study of relati­onships between the cultural context of human develo­pment and the behaviors that become establ­ished in the repertoire of indivi­duals growing up in a particular culture

E.B. Tylor, who was the first anthro­pol­ogist to define the term "­cul­tur­e," referred to it as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs and any other capabi­lities and habits acquired by man as a member of society

Etic Approach: Involves studying behaviors of multiple cultures from outside the system, and compar­es/­con­trasts features using criteria thought to be absolute or universal

Emic Approach: Describes the study of cultural norms that are specific to one group of people or within one culture

in sensor­imotor develo­pment, there are more simila­rities across cultures than there are differ­ences

Aristotle Innate knowledge does not exist – Knowledge rooted in sensory experi­ences

Locke Tabula Rasa “clean slate” – Knowledge shaped by reinfo­rcement

Emotional & Social Develo­pment Themes: nature­/nu­rture, Ecological Systems View Point–Bronfe­nbr­enner (Co-fo­und­er-Head Start)

Enviro­nme­nt=­Nested Structures a.Micros­ystem Direct exposure (relat­ion­ships, school, etc.) b.Mesosystem Interc­onn­ections between systems c.Exosystem Instit­utions of society that indirect affect child d.Macros­ystem Cultural (values, beliefs, customs, &laws) e.Chrono­system time

The need for relating includes being loved, valued, accepted.

Assump­tions of Ecological Systems Theory: Time is a limitation and a resource, Human behavior can be understood at the individual and at the population level, Humans organize their intera­ctions within their spatial enviro­nment.

Attach­ment: Social and emotional nouris­hment 1.Proximity Mainte­nance 2.Safe Haven 3.Secure Base 4.Separation Distress

Attachment for sense of security and affects internal working model

Stages of Attachment Birth-­2mo­nths: attachment presents, but directed at any person 2-7months: Attachment becomes focused on a primary caregi­ver­(mo­ther); separation anxiety develops near the end of this period 7-24mo­nths: Attachment with signif­icant caregivers develop; Infant elicits attachment behavior by actively seekin­g/e­ngaging 24months: Increasing cognitive & social develo­pment allows the child to take others’ feelings & perspe­ctives into consid­eration & use these to form multiple social attach­ments to peers/­car­egivers

Imprinting is most precisely defined as the process by which the releasing stimuli of instincts are filled in

Occur during the same phase of attach­ment: the Moro reflex, cooing and babbling, social smiling

Occurs during the same phase of attach­ment: separation anxiety, crying out for a departing parent, stranger anxiety

Secure 1.Able to separate from parent 2.Seek comfort from parents when frightened 3.Return of parents is met with positive emotions 4.Prefers parents to stranger

Insecure: 1.Resistant a.May be wary of strangers b.Become greatly distressed when the parent leaves c.Does not appear to be comforted by the return of the parent 2.Avoidant a.May avoid parents b.Does not seek comfor­t/c­ontact from parents c.Shows little or no preference for parent & stranger 3.Disorg­ani­zed­/di­sor­iented a.Show a mixture of avoidant & resistant behaviors b.May seem dazed, confused, or appreh­ensive

The Bowlby­/Ai­nsworth advice on child-­rearing is most similar to that of Gesell

Research suggests that the parents of insecu­re-­amb­ivalent children are preocc­upied with winning their own parents' love

Harry Harlow 1963 Research with monkeys; study suggested social bond is more important than food & physical presence

Erik Erikson saw the task of this stage of develo­pment as achieving a sense of trust vs. mistrust

A stranger enters the room & caregiver leaves

The stranger tries to comfort the child

The child is left alone for 3 minutes

The stranger enters & interacts with the child

Culture and society play a pivotal role in theory

Expected cognitive develo­pment to vary from society to society

Balance between internal develo­pmental and socio-­his­torical influences

Vygotsky was interested in speech and memory aids as psycho­logical tools, believing that egocentric or self-d­irected speech is useful to children. Self-d­irected speech: begins developing after social speech, starts out spoken and gradually becomes intern­alized, becomes increa­singly abbrev­iated during the ages 6 to 8 years

Vygotsky Basic Principles of Cognitive Develo­pment:

Informal Learning: accurately learni­ng/­per­forming tasks in daily life

Inner speech: articu­lates dimly formed thoughts and feelings

Vygotsky was committed to Marxism, Marx argued that people's ideas and values reflect people's economic interests

Piaget and Vygotsky most strongly disagreed over the importance of children making their own discov­eries

The "­Tools of the Mind" project tries to teach self regulation through play

Luria found that when young children try to give themselves verbal commands. they behave as if all commands initiate behavior

children first learn the social forms of behavior, then apply it to themselves themselves

Terms: mediation, metaco­gni­tion, inner speech

Piaget focused on the role of objects while Vygotsky focused on the role of people

According to Piaget develo­pment leads learning; according to Vygotsky learning leads develo­pment.

Adaptation: Relates schemes & experi­ences in the world Assimi­lation interprets new experience in terms of existing schemes Accomm­odation alters schemes in response to new experi­ences Equili­bration assimi­lation & accomm­odation working together to enrich the child’s worldview

Period 1: Sensor­imotor Intell­igence (Birth­-2yrs & consist of six stages) Reflexes (1 month) Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 months) Infants coordinate two body actions. Baby chances upon a new experience & tries to repeat its “const­ruction process” Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 months) Baby discovers & reproduces an intere­sting event outside themselves The Coordi­nation of Secondary Schemes (8 to 12 months) Learning to coordinate two different schemes to get a result Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) infant experi­ments with different actions & observes the outcome The Beginnings of Thought (18mo – 2 years) Children think out situations more internally before they act, marked by deferred imitation

Period 3: Concrete Operations (7-11 years) Cognitive operations Internal mental activity to modify symbols to reach a logical conclu­sion. Marked by mastery of conser­vation (by recogn­izing the contra­dic­tions in their own thought) master conser­vation and classi­fic­ation tasks

Cognitive Develo­pment Emotional intell­igence Aspects of the way people handle their own emotions and others

Recent research suggests Piaget' stages are not too general across tasks

When children enter the Concrete Operations stage of cognitive develo­pment, they are able to conserve liquids and may use one of three arguments: Identity, Compen­sation (one is taller, but the other is wider, so they cancel each other out), Inversion (you could make this row long again and make them equal)

When children consider rules fixed and unchan­geable, Piaget used the term moral heteronomy

Based on cross-­cul­tural research of Piaget's preope­rat­ional and concrete operat­ional stages of develo­pment, we can conclude that while children in different cultures have to deal with different realities, they apply all of the same operations or processes of thought.

Beliefs The ability to learn language is instin­ctive. Children learn to talk because they are geneti­cally equipped to do so

Theory All babies language develo­pment follows a pattern. Humans have a Language Acquis­ition Device (LAD)

Attention Developing cognitive processes to pay attention to a model- more developed processes allow for better attention, Must observe the model accurately enough to imitate behavior

Retention Imaginal internal repres­ent­ation: visual image, forming mental picture Verbal system: verbal descri­ption of behavior; silently rehearsing steps in behavior

Abstract modeling is a way of learning skills and behaviors by the indirect observ­ation of others (When children pick up the rules underlying modeled behavior)

observ­ational learning from models, compared to operant condit­ioning, is frequently faster

Aggression: Bobo Doll-boys more aggres­sive. Children watching an aggressive cartoon were more aggressie in their play.

preaching can have strong short-term effects on pro-social behavi­orbut can backfire

Bandura says a positive sense of self-e­fficacy gives one energy to persist with tasks

Behavior determined by conseq­uences. A key measure of condit­ioning is the rate of response

In Skinner's view, punishment often produces unwanted side effects, positive learning is more effective

Skinnerian theory has lost much popularity because psycho­logists have become increa­singly interested in cognition

In light of problems posed by the concept of drive, Premack, one of Skinner's followers, proposes we consider reinfo­rcement as the momentary probab­ility of a response

Skinner's attitude toward the theory of natural selection seemed basically positive

"­Con­str­ain­ts" on learning refer to the finding that organisms learn some things more readily than others

Bandura's observ­ational learning theory differs from Skinner's operant theory on the need to directly act to learn

Stage 1: Oral 0-18 months, sucking, swallo­wing. EGO develops

Stage 2: Anal Age 18-36m­onths, children begin potty training

Stage 5: Genital Puberty +, sexual interc­ourse

3 Levels of awareness: Conscious: working memory, contents actively thinking about; easily accessed, Precon­scious: contents you are not currently aware of; thoughts, memories, knowledge, wishes, feelings; available for easy access when needed, Uncons­cious: contents kept out of conscious awareness; not accessible

Freud first replaced hypnosis with free associ­ation

The text says the story of Hansel and Gretel illust­rates conflicts at the oral stage

Stage 1: Birth to age 1 Trust vs Mistrust Totally dependent on others; caregiver influences trust, Basic strength: Hope

Stage 2: Ages 1-3 Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt Able to exercise some degree of choice, Basic strength: will

Stage 5: Ages 12-18 Identity vs Role Confusion Form ego-id­entity: self-i­mage, Strong sense of identity: face adulthood with certainty and confid­ence, psycho­social moratorium occurs, Identity crisis: confusion of ego identity, Basic strength: Fidelity

Stage 6: Ages 18-35 Intimacy vs Isolation Undertake productive work and establish intimate relati­onship, Basic strength: Love

Other

Anna Freud said the most powerful defense mechanism, which frequently works in conjun­ction with the other defenses, is repression

Reacti­on-­for­mation is the defense mechanism is most typically at play in the anal stage

Freud would suggest that a young man's anxiety over compet­ition probably reflects earlier problems at the third (phallic) stage

Clara Thompson said that penis envy in girls is actually a cry for equal opport­unity

Erikson seems to regard identity forecl­osure as impove­rishing the person­ality

Erikson's stages, compared to Piaget's more matura­tio­nally governed

Erikson and Piaget are in agreement in regards to whether the stages are qualit­atively different

Erikson's child rearing advice sounds most similar to that of Gesell

Moral reasoning the thinking process involved in deciding whether an act is right or wrong. Moral reasoning is believed to progress through a fixed and universal order of stages, each of which represents a consistent way of thinking about moral issues that is different from the stage preceding or following it

Hetero­nomous morality Children 6 to 10 years old take rules seriously, believing that they are handed down by parents and other authority figures and are sacred and unalte­rable, They judge rule violations as wrong based on the extent of damage done, not paying much attention to whether the violator had good or bad intentions

Precon­ven­tional Stage 1: Infancy: Obedie­nce­/Pu­nis­hment The child is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

Conven­tional Stage 3: School­-age: Good Interp­ersonal Relati­ons­hips: Conformity and Interp­ersonal Accord Effort to secure approval and maintain friendship with others, aka: the good boy/girl stage "­fig­hting is wrong because it is mean and hurts others­"

Postco­nve­ntional Stage 5: Teens: Social Contact and Individual Rights Mutual benefit, recipr­ocity. Morally right and legally right are not the same. Utilit­arian rules that benefit everyone.

Kohlberg's stage 7 may include a spiritual sense of oneness with the cosmos

Kohlberg said each stage in his theory is more cognit­ively adequate than the preceding stage

Normal Symbiotic Phase: 1 to 5 Months Babies begin to learn about their world and develop their very first human bond with the mother. Positive stimuli (cuddling, smiling, engaged attention) and relief of discomfort (feeding promptly when hungry, changing of soiled nappies, providing an approp­riate sleep enviro­nment) all help the infant to develop a trust that their needs will be met, building a basis for security and confid­ence.

Sub-phase Two: Practicing 10 to 16 Months Still not ready for extended separation toddlers will sometimes choose to separate briefly from mom, but will typically return quickly for assurance and comfort. Some indepe­ndent play time is enjoyed, but often the baby is only comfor­table to play on their own when the mother is within the child's line of sight. Mahler described this "­hat­chi­ng" as the true birth the individual occurs, with the child beginning to have a basic sense of self not directly connected to the mother.

Sub-phase Four: Consol­idation and Object Constancy 24 to 36 Months At some point around the second birthday, children begin to be more comfor­table separating from their mothers, knowing that they will return (object consta­ncy). This ability makes it possible for two year olds to accept that they are unique from their mothers without anxiety, allowing the child to engage substi­tutes for the mother when she is absent.

Mahler's normal autism: inner focus, still achieving physio­logical balance, stimulus barrier

In therapy with severely disturbed children, one of Mahler's most common goals was to promote a more pleasu­rable symbiosis

Dialec­tical Thinking: the ability to view issues from multiple perspe­ctives

The "­Tools of the Mind" project tries to teach self-r­egu­lation through play

illust­rates the principle of functional asymmetry: tonic neck

A pediat­rician expects the infant to demons­trate the pincer grasp at ten months

Scaffo­lding gradually removes assistance to the child