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AP Biology Exam 2020 Notes Cheat Sheet (DRAFT) by

AP Biology Exam 2020 Notes

This is a draft cheat sheet. It is a work in progress and is not finished yet.

Unit 1: Bioche­mistry

Carboh­ydrates
Polarity: Polar, Hydrop­hilic
Polymer: Polysa­cch­arides
Monomer: Monosa­cch­arides
Bond Type: Glycosidic Linkage - strong stable covalent bond, always goes from a carbon bonded to an oxygen bonded to a carbon
Formula: C
n
H
2n
O
n
Functions: Energy Storage (Starc­h/G­lyc­ogen); Structural (Cellu­los­e/C­hitin)
 
Lipids
Polarity: Non-Polar, Hydrop­hobic
Polymer: No Polymers or Monomers
Types: Trigly­cer­ides, Phosph­olipids (hydro­phi­lic), Steroids
Bond Type: Ester Bond -
Formula: Contains many C’s & H’s and has uneven C:O ratio
Functions: Energy Storage (Starc­h/G­lyc­ogen); Structural (Cellu­los­e/C­hitin)
 
Proteins
Polarity: Non-Polar or Polar Side Chains
Polymer: Polype­ptide
Monomer: Amino Acid
Bond Type: Peptide Bonds - strong stable covalent bond, carbon in carboxyl group bonds to nitrogen in amine group, OH (carboxyl) & H (amine) forms H2O
Formula: Includes Nitrogen, not Phosphorus !
Functions: So Many (ex. Enzymes, Structural Support)
 
Nucleic Acids
Polarity: Polar, Hydrop­hilic
Polymer: Nucleic Acids
Monomer: Nucleotide
Bond Type: Phosph­odi­ester - strong covalent bond, hydroxyl group (sugar) bonds to phosphate of next nucleotide
Formula: Includes Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Functions: Coding Inform­ation (DNA, RNA)
 
Properties of Water
Polarity - H₂O is “Polar” because it’s uneven distri­bution of electrons gives it a charge()
Cohesion - Attraction of molecules to other molecules of the same kind. H₂O has strong cohesive forces due to the H-Bonds they form with one another.
Adhesion - Attraction of molecules to other types of molecules. H₂O “stick­s/a­dheres” to substances that are more positive or negative than itself
Surface Tension - Liquid’s resistance to spreading out due to the cohesive nature of its molecules. H₂O = high surface tension when cohesive forces are stronger than adhesive ones.
High Specific Heat - H₂O has the highest specific heat of any liquid due to its H-Bonds. specific heat - the amount of heat required totemp. of 1g of a substance by1C
H-Bonding - weak bonds from the electr­ostatic attraction (δ− portion to δ+ portion). Oxygen is δ− and Hydrogens are δ+ in water.
 
Carbon Based Life
Carbon is stable and forms four covalent bonds
 
Fluid Mosaic Model
Phosph­olipids - not bound to each other; form structure due to water intera­ctions; lipids ≠ bound → bilayer = fluid
Phosph­oli­pids: saturated tails take up less space, unsatu­rated (kinked) take up more space, long tails = thick membrane, short tails = thing membrane, choles­terol buffers fluidity
 
Enzymes and Regulation
Compet­itive Inhibitors - Compete with substrate for the active site; slow down the reaction
Noncom­pet­itive Inhibitors - its attachment (not at active site), Δ active site shape → stop/slow down reaction
Enzyme Structure - (Protein Structure) Synthesis Rxn-2 enzymes catalyze one reaction
Induced fit - Enzyme ↓ the activation energy of a rxn and makes it happen quicker
Enzyme Activity versus PH is a bell curve because their optimal pH for the reaction
Enzyme Activity versus [Subst­rate] is a linear relation until saturated and reaction rate platoes
Enzyme Activity versus Time is linear until the protein is denatured at a certain temper­ature

Carboh­ydrate Structure

Lipid Structure

Protein Structure

Amino Acid Structure

  

Unit 2: Cell Biology

Essential Cell Structure
1. Plasma Membrane - Separates internal enviro­nment from external (maintains homeos­tasis); shows cell came from a common ancestor
2. DNA - Inform­ation Store/­ins­tru­ction to pass on to the next generation
3. Ribosomes - Be able to build proteins from DNA instru­ctions
4. Cytopl­asm­/Cy­tosol - Conduct the chemical processes of life (water based gel allows for diffusion)
 
Prok. compared to Eukaryotes
Prokar­yotes
Simple, Small, Cheap No Nucleus, Has Nucleoid Circular DNA No Internal Membrane Organelles do one job
Eukaryotes
Complex, Bigger, Expensive Has Nucleus Linear DNA Many Internal Membranes Organelles have many specific compar­tme­nta­lized functions
 
Endome­mbrane System
System - Another charac­ter­istic of eukaryotes that provides advantage to the cell due to different compar­tments (organ­elles) → fine tuned to be the best enviro­nment for their job
Idea - System of internal membranes nucleus (has code for making all the proteins) → continuous membrane with the ER (pro. factory) → smooth and rough (vesicles exit the right after and go to the golgi body) → the golgi body (place for modifying cellular products) buds off more vesicles that could fuse with the membrane and dump out the contents, could involve other organelles
 
Endosy­mbiotic Theory
Endosy­mbiosis - one organism living inside of another
Theory: a cell absorbed mitoch­ond­ria­/ch­lor­oplast & displayed the combined ability of both
Evidence
1. Mitoch­ondria & Chloro­plasts multiply like ancient protists
2. M & C have their own DNA (circular) + ribosomes similar to ancient bacteria
3. M & C have inner and outer membranes (inner is their own w/ lipids from ancient bacteria; outer is the cell that they acquired when engulfed)
 
Membrane Structure
A phosph­olipid bilayer with embedded proteins that is select­ively permeable (ambip­hilic: polar cannot penetrate; non polar passes right through ex. steroid hormone)
 
Passive Transport
Diffusion - (↑ to ↓ concen­tra­tion) uses concen­tration gradients
Factors Affecting Diffusion: Amount of gradient, Mass of molecules, Temp, Solvent Density, Solubi­lity, Surface Area & Membrane Thickness, Distance Traveled
Osmosis - movement of H₂O to balance solute concen­tration (H₂O moves from high H₂O potential (less negative) to low H₂O potential (more negative) :: pure H₂O = w.p.)
total w.p.= solute potential + physical pressure
Facili­tated Diffusion - (↑ to ↓ with help) type of diffusion guided by the presence of another integral membrane protein forming a pore or channel
 
Active Transport
Active Transport - uses free energy to move against concen­tration gradient
Primary Active Transport - ATP dependent
Secondary Active Transport - Primary dependent
Pumps - work against electr­oma­gnetic gradient
 
Bulk Transport
Endocy­tosis - entering the cell (loss of membrane)
Types - Phagoc­ytosis (cell eating); Phinoc­ytosis (cell drinking)
Photoc­ytosis - uses caveolin & is receptor mediated
Exocytosis - exiting the cell (membrane gain)
Transc­ytosis - in one side, out the other

Eukaryotic Cell Struct­ure­/Fu­nction (Animal)

Eukaryotic Cell Struct­ure­/Fu­nction (Plant)

Prokaryote Cell Structure

  

Unit 3: Cell Respir­ation & PhotoS­ynt­hesis

Photos­ynt­hesis (Concept)
Light Energy → Chemical Compounds (Glucose)
2 Electron Transport Chains: 1 makes ATP, 1 makes NADPH
 
Cellular Respir­ation
Glucose → Usable Energy
1 Electron Transport Chain: makes ATP
 
Compare
Depend on each other <-> Chemical Eqs
Both help ATP synthase: Both have H+ pumps (One pumps in, other out)
 
Altern­ative Photos­ynt­hesis Pathways
C3 - Concept (Normal Plant); Flaw (H₂O Loss); Where (Cell: Mezoph­ill­)(W­orld: Everyw­here)
C4 - Concept (“Air Lock”: extra step before Calvin Cycle); Flaw ( Costs Extra Energy); Where Cell (Mezophill & Calvin Cycle); Where World (↑Light; ↓ Nutrients)
CAM - Concept (“Night Closed”: extra step before Calvin Cycle); Flaw ( Costs Extra Energy); Where Cell (Mezophill & Calvin Cycle during day); Where World (dry, arid places)
Rubisco - Concept ( Enzyme s CO₂ from inorganic → organic); Flaw (Not selective → causes Photor­esp­ira­tion); Where Cell (Calvin Cycle)

Altern­ative Photos­ynt­hesis Pathways

Glycolysis

Imput: 1 Glucose; 2 ATP; 2 NAD+
Output: 2 Pyruvate; 2 ATP (net); 2 NADH
Where: Cytoplasm

Explan­ation:
1. use ATP to trap & breakdown glucose
2. Continue with oxidative phosph­ory­lation to make 2 pyruvate

Pyruvate Decarb­oxy­lation

Input: 2 Pyruvate; 2 NAD+
Output: 2 AcetylCoA; 2 NADH; 2 CO₂
Where: Mitoch­ondria Matrix

Explin­ation:
1. Remove Carboxyl Group
2. Oxidise Acetyl Group
3. Attach CoA