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Biology 12 Cheat Sheet (DRAFT) by

This is a draft cheat sheet. It is a work in progress and is not finished yet.

Chapter 1 KeyTerms

Polymers
 
Proteins, carboh­ydr­ates, lipids­(fats), nuclear acid(D­NA/­RNA),
 
Is a chain of many monomers linked together.
 
Mono = one
 
Di = two
Monomers
 
Amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, nuclea­toids
 
Made:(­Deh­ydr­ation synthesis) or broken down(H­ydr­olysis) over in living cells
MacroM­ole­cules
 
Large Polymers called macrom­ole­cules
 
Formed by monomers joining, through loss of water called peltyd­ati­ation synthesis
Dehydr­ation Synthesis (DS)
 
Monomers are joined in dehydr­ation synthesis
 
Chains of monomers are Polymers
 
Enzymes that speed up DS, are called dehydr­oge­nases
Hydrolysis
 
Polymer breaking into units is hydrolysis
 
Enzymes that speed it up are called hydrolases

Lipids

Lipids
 
Made up of C,H,O
 
Large molecules that are insoluble in water
Neutral Fats
 
Trigly­cerides
 
Made up of 3 fatty acids bonded to one glycerol
 
Fatty acids contain a long chain of 16-18 carbons with an acid on the end
 
Glycerol is small 3 carbon chain with 3 alcohol (OH) groups
 
Butter, animal fats molecules bind together through dehydr­ation synthesis
Types of Trigly­cerides
 
Saturated Fats
 
No double bonds in the carbon fatty acid chains
 
Filled with hydrogens
 
Unhealthy
 
Mostly come from animals
 
Become solid at room temper­ature
 
Exampl­es:­Lard, butter, animal fats
 
Unsatu­rated Fats
 
There is one monoun­sat­urated or more double bonds oolyun­sat­urated
 
Mostly come from plants
 
Liquid at room temper­ature
 
Healthy
 
Exampl­e:Olive oil, Corn oil, Palm oil
Phosph­olipids
 
Used to make up two layered cell membraines in cells
 
The third fatty acid group of a trigly­ceride is replaced by an inorganic phosphate group
 
^ This creates a polar end
 
Polar End
 
Phosphate end is water solubl­e:H­ydr­oPhilic
 
Fatty Acids is not water solubl­e:H­ydr­ophobic
Steroids
 
Very different structure from lipids but are also water isoluble
 
Made up of 4 carbon ring molecules fused together
 
Exampl­e:T­est­ost­erone, estrogen, choles­terol, and vitamin D
 
Used as sex hormones
Uses of Lipids
 
Long term storage for energy
 
Better energy storage than glycogen or starch
 
Insulation and protection in animals
 
Making hormon­es(­Ste­roids)
 
Structure of cell membranes.
 
Without lipids we would have no cells

DNA RNA difference

DNA
RNA
Nitrogen base:ATGC
Nitrogen Base:AUGC
Sugar:­deo­xyr­ibose
Sugar:­ribos
Double stranded
Single stranded
1 type
2 types:mRNA - Messanger rRNA - Ribosomal rRNA - Transfer
Forms double helix
No helix
DNA makes DNA
DNA makes RNA
Very bid molecule
Much smaller molecule

Adenosine Tripho­sphate

ATP
 
ATP also has nuclear acid has same structure as nucleotide
 
Only three phosphate groups instead of one
 
Energy source for the body
Adenosine Tripho­sphate
 
Cellular Respir­ation
 
Mitoch­andria turn energy of glucose into ATP
 
It takes a lot of energy to put two phosphate molecules together
 
When you break the bond a lot of energy is released
**C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (Heat and ATP)
 

Monomer Polymer Building Blocks

Monomers (Sub units)
Polymers
Sugars
Polysa­cch­arides
Fatty Acids
Eats/L­ipi­ds/­Mem­branes
Amino Acids
Protiens
Nucleo­tides
Nuclear acids
Cycle
Polymers
 
Carboh­ydrates
 
Protiens
 
Lipids­(Fat)
 
DNA/RN­A(N­uclear acids)
Go through H20 Energy (Hydro­lysis)
Monomers
 
Simple Sugar
 
Amino Acids
 
Fatty Acids @ Glycerol
 
Nucleo­tides
Go through H20 Energy Dehydr­ation Synthesis
Reactions require
 
ATP energy
 
Water
 
Enzymes
Cycle Continues

Proteins

Proteins
 
Made up of C,H,O and N
 
No set ratio
 
Made up of chains of Amino acids (Usually 75 or more)
 
Amino acid chains formed through dehydr­ation synthesis
 
40% of the human body is made of protein
 
Building blocks of Proteins are Amino acids
 
Amino group (NH2 or NH3) acts as a base (Accepts H+)
 
Carboxyl group (COOH or COO-) acts as an acid (Donates H+)
 
R Group:­There are 20 different possib­ilities
 
Amino acids bond through dehydr­eation synthesis
 
The amino acids bind together with a peptide bond
 
Peptide bond is formed between C and N no water is lost (Dehyd­ration Synthesis)
 
When original two amino acids form beginning of the chain with one peptide bond is called a Dipeptide
 
It can grow and become a Tripeptide
 
End state is Polype­ptide (30 and 30,000 amino acids)
 
Another name fro polype­ptide is Protein
 
Every protein is different because the order of amino acids is different
 
Or order of different R groups and how they bond
 
They also function differ­ently
Levels of Protein Structure
 
Primary Structure
 
First level of how proteins are formed
 
Order of amino acids joined together with peptide bonds
 
Amino acids sequence tgat determine the nature and chem of protein
 
Secondary Structure
 
Second step in forming protein
 
When peptide bond is formed, a double bonded oxygen is left over.
 
Attracted to positive NH3 amino group from other amino acids in the chain
 
This attraction forms a hydrogen bond
 
This causes the chian to twist called alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet
 
Tertiary Structure
 
The next intera­ction take place between R groups
 
Some R groups are reactive and will interact with other reactive R groups in the chain.
 
These amino acids that are either charged or that have a sulphure atom
 
The intera­ctions (tand attrac­tions and S-S bridges) will fold the molecule over into a highly specific 3 dimens­ional shape
 
It is 3-D shape that will determine the proteins job or role in the body
 
Quaternary Structure
 
This last level in protein formation is not seen in all proteins
 
Proteins can actually be 2 or more molecules joined to form a functional protein
 
These are held by ionic bond
 
Two Examples
 
Insulin has 2 subunits
 
Hemoglobin has 4 subunits
 
The whole process
Bonds
Primary protein structure
Peptide Bonds
Secondary protein structure
Hydrogen Bonds
Tertiary protein structure
Intera­ctions between R groups
Quaternary protein structure
Ionic Bonds
 
Denatu­ration
 
Final shape of protein is very specific and enables it to do its job/fu­nction
 
Any change in a proteins shape will affect its function
 
Denatu­ration is when a protein tertiary structure is lost
 
This happens when R group bonds are broken
 
When a denatu­ration the protein cannot do its joband becomes useless
How does this happen?
 
Temper­ature
 
High temper­ature affects the weak hydrogen bonds and can distort or break them
 
A slight increase in temp can cause reversible change (Fever)
 
A high increase will cause irreve­rsible change (Cooking an egg)
 
Chemicals
 
Heavy metals like lead and mercury are large atoms that are attracted the R groups of amino acids
 
They bond to the R group and distort proteins shape
 
This is usually irreve­rsible
 
PH
 
As some of the R groups are acids and some are bases, every protein (enzyme) has a preferred PH
 
Any change in PH causes a change in the acid base R group intera­ctions and this will change the shape of the protein
Functions of Proteins
 
Structural
 
Proteins help make up all struct­urers in living things
 
Actin & Myosin: Muscle Proteins
 
Keratin: Nails, Hair, Horns, Feathers
 
Collag­en:­Bones, teeth, cartilage, tendon, ligament, blood vessels, skin matrix
 
Functional
 
Other proteins help us to keep our bodies functi­oning properly and to digest our food
 
Enzyme­s:Are proteins that are catalysts which speed up reactions and control all cell activities
 
Food Source­:Once we have used up all of our carboh­ydrates and fats, proteins will be a use of energy
 
Proteins are worth the least amount of energy per gram
 

CarboH­ydrates

Hydrated Carbons
 
(CH20)n
 
Ratio of Carbons, Hydrogens and Oxygens are 1:2:1
 
(CH20)3 = C3H6O3
 
(CH2O)6 = C6H12O6
Sugars
 
Known also as Succandes
 
Carboh­ydrates end in 'ose'
Carboh­ydrates
 
Riohas­och­arides
 
Basic sugar molecule Glucose
 
Glucos­e:C­6H12O6
 
Glucose has ring Structure
 
Glucose:6 sided
 
Fructose:5 sided
 
6 sides:­Hexose
 
5 sides:­Pentos
Carboh­ydrates
 
dissac­cha­rides
 
If two sugar are formed through dehydr­ation synthesis a disacc­haride is formed
Glucose combin­ation
 
Glucose + Glucose = Maltose
 
Glucose + Fructose = Sacrose
 
Galactose + Glucose = Lactose
Carboh­ydrates
 
Polysa­cch­arides
When many sugars bind through dehydr­ation synthesis four polysa­cch­arides can form
 
Starch
 
Glycogen
 
Cellulose
 
Chitin
Carboh­ydrate Polysa­cch­arides
 
Cellulose
 
Plant Cell walls made of cellulose
 
Are long chains of glucose molecules with side chains
 
No mammal can break the bond
 
Linkage between carbon atoms of the sugars is different than starch and glycogen
 
We can't digest cellul­ose­(Fibre)
Carboh­ydrate Polysa­cch­arides
 
Starch
 
Plants store energy as starch
 
Starch made up of glucose molecules linked together (Many)
 
Few side chains
Carboh­ydrate Polysa­cch­arides
 
Glycogen
 
Animals store energy as glycogen (Extra glucose)
 
Glycogen made up of glucose molecules linked together
 
Glycogen has many side chains
Carboh­ydrate Polysa­cch­arides
 
Chitin
 
Made by animals and fungi
 
Long glucose chains linked by covalent bonds
 
Very strong
 
Make structures like exo-sk­ele­tons, finger­nails, claws, and beaks
Main function of carbs
 
Energy­:When bonds between carbon atoms are broken, energy released can be used by cells
 
Carboh­ydrates are primary energy molecules for all life
 
Struct­ura­l:C­ell­ulose major structural compound in plants (Cell wall)

Nuclear Acids

Nuclear Acids
 
Are acidic molecules are found in nucleus
 
Two types VERY large
 
DNA:De­oxy­rib­onu­eleic acid
 
RNA:Ri­bon­ucleic Acid
 
All acids are composed of units called Nucleo­tides
Nucleo­tides composed of three sub molecules
 
Pentese sugar (Ribose or deoxyr­ibose)
 
Phosphate
 
Nitrogen Base (Purine of Pyrimi­dine)
Nitrogen base
 
Purines
 
Adenine and Guanine
 
Have two rings
 
Found in DNA and RNA
Nitrogen base
 
Pyrimi­dines
 
Cytosine, thymine and Uracil
 
Have one ring
 
Cytosine is in both DNA and RNA
 
Thymine is DNA only
 
Uracil is RNA only
Deoxyr­ibo­nucleic Acid
 
Structure of DNA:Co­mposed of two compli­mentary nucleo­tides
Two strands joined by hydrogen bonds which between compli­mentary nitrogen bases:
 
Adenine with Thyanine (A-T or T-A)
 
Cytosine with Guanine (C-G or G-C)
 
When DNA is first formed its just two linear strands of nucleo­tides joined together
 
Dure to internal bonding the DNA molecule then forms into a double helix
Functions of DNA
 
Directs and controlls all cell activity
 
Does this by making all proteins and enzymes
 
Contains all genetic inform­ation necessary to make one complete organism of very exact specif­ica­tions
Bonucleic Acid
 
RNA is made by DNA
 
Not confined to the nucleus it moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm of the cell
 
It has ribose sugar instead of Deoxyr­ibose
 
No thymines uses uracils instead
 
Single stranded no helix
 
8 types of RNA
 
RNA function is assist DNA in making proteins