Drive Reduction Theory
Motivation arises from internal biological needs that create uncomfortable states (drives) we’re pushed to reduce. |
Need → Drive → Behavior → Homeostasis |
Goal: Restore balance (homeostasis) |
Example: You're hungry (drive), so you eat to reduce the tension |
Primary Drives: Hunger, thirst |
Secondary Drives: Learned (e.g., money to buy food) |
Criticism: Can’t explain behaviors like curiosity or risk-taking. |
The central idea behind Hull’s theory is the body’s natural drive to return to physiological balance. |
When a need disrupts homeostasis → it creates a drive → the behavior aims to restore balance. |
Think: Thermostat —> House too cold → Heater turns on → Temperature normalizes. |
Reinforcement Loop: Behavior that successfully reduces a drive is reinforced and more likely to happen again. |
Example: You’re hungry (drive) → you eat → you feel better → eating gets reinforced. |
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
A humanistic theory suggesting that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, from basic to self-fulfillment. |
Levels (bottom → top): |
Physiological – food, water, warmth |
Safety – stability, shelter |
Love/Belonging – intimacy, friendship |
Esteem – respect, achievement |
Self-Actualization – fulfilling potential |
Must fulfill lower-level needs before progressing |
Later expansions include: Cognitive, Aesthetic, and Transcendence needs |
Core Idea: Human motivation is structured in a hierarchy, and lower-level needs must be at least partially satisfied before higher-level needs become motivational. |
He later added: 6. Cognitive Needs (knowledge, curiosity) 7. Aesthetic Needs (beauty, balance, harmony) 8. Transcendence (helping others self-actualize, spiritual meaning) |
Characteristics of Self-Actualized People (per Maslow): Realistic perception of self & others Problem-centered rather than ego-centered Spontaneous & creative Deep interpersonal relationships Peak experiences (intense moments of joy, creativity, transcendence) Examples: Abraham Lincoln, Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt (according to Maslow) |
Progression is flexible – You don’t need complete satisfaction of a lower level to move up. Just relative satisfaction. |
Regression is possible – Life stressors can push people back down the hierarchy (e.g., job loss = drop from esteem to safety focus) |
It's not rigid – Cultural and individual differences affect the order. |
You can skip levels under specific conditions (e.g., some people pursue art while struggling with safety) |
It’s a theoretical model, not an empirically fixed rule |
Maslow’s theory is humanistic – focuses on growth, potential, meaning—not biology or reinforcement |
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: The Deep Internal Drive |
"I do it because I love it." |
Examples: Reading for curiosity, Painting for joy, Solving puzzles because they’re fun, Volunteering because it feels meaningful |
Key Characteristics: |
Tied to autonomy, curiosity, mastery, purpose, Often leads to deeper engagement, better learning, and longer-lasting behavior, Central to Self-Determination Theory (SDT) |
Extrinsic Motivation: Reward-Driven Behavior |
"I do it to get something or avoid something." |
Examples: Studying for grades, Working for a paycheck, Cleaning to avoid being scolded, Competing to win a prize |
Key Characteristics: |
Behavior is instrumental—a means to an end, Varies in strength depending on value of the reward or threat of punishment |
The Overjustification Effect |
When an external reward is added to something you already enjoy, intrinsic motivation may decrease. |
Example: You love painting → You start getting paid → You feel less joy and more pressure → Intrinsic motivation declines. |
Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
Core Premise: |
People are most motivated, productive, and mentally healthy when their behavior is self-determined—driven by a sense of choice, interest, and internal commitment. |
In other words: autonomy > pressure. |
Three Basic Psychological Needs |
These are universal, meaning everyone, across cultures and ages, is driven by them. |
1. Autonomy: The need to feel that one is the origin of their own behavior. |
Sense of personal control, choice, freedom, Not the same as independence—it’s about willingness, not just doing things alone, Motivation drops if people feel coerced, micromanaged, or overly evaluated |
Example: A student who chooses to study psychology because she’s genuinely interested (vs. one forced by parental pressure) |
2. Competence: The need to feel capable and effective in one’s actions. |
Builds through mastery, learning, and challenge, People need positive feedback to stay motivated, Too much failure = learned helplessness Too easy = boredom |
Example: Gamified learning apps (like Duolingo) work because they help users feel competent through small wins. |
3. Relatedness: The need to feel connected, understood, and valued by others. |
Drives social bonding, cooperation, belonging, Motivation suffers when people feel isolated, ignored, or alienated, Applies to teachers, managers, parents—all motivation is relational too |
Example: A person sticks with a job longer if they feel a sense of community, even if it’s hard. |
When these 3 needs are satisfied: ✅ Intrinsic motivation increases ✅ Well-being improves ✅ Engagement deepens ✅ Persistence lasts longer |
Types of Motivation in SDT (Continuum) |
Amotivation: No intention to act: “Why bother?” |
External Regulation: Act to get reward or avoid punishment: “I study for grades” |
Introjected Regulation: Act to avoid guilt or gain ego boost: “I’ll feel bad if I don’t” |
Identified Regulation: See value in the task: “I study because education matters” |
Integrated Regulation: Fully internalized but still for outcomes: “This aligns with who I am” |
Intrinsic Motivation: Pure enjoyment of the activity: “I love learning!” |
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Arousal Theory
We are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal—not too low, not too high. |
Yerkes-Dodson Law: |
Performance ↑ with arousal—but only to a point |
Easy tasks: High arousal is okay |
Difficult tasks: Best with low/moderate arousal |
Explains thrill-seeking behaviors that don’t fit Drive Reduction. |
Graph: Upside-down U-shaped curve |
Some people are sensation-seekers: They prefer higher arousal levels. Example: Skydivers, explorers |
Others prefer calm, low-stimulation environments. Example: Artists, people with anxiety |
Important: There’s no universal “ideal” arousal level—it’s task- and person-dependent. |
Types of Arousal: |
Emotional arousal, Cognitive arousal, Environmental stimulation |
Applications / Examples |
Explains exploratory behavior in infants or animals |
Helps explain play, creativity, thrill-seeking (unlike Drive Reduction Theory) |
Useful in sports, education, workplace settings |
Criticism |
Doesn’t fully explain long-term goal-directed behavior |
Lacks clarity on how arousal is regulated or how it interacts with cognition |
Incentive Theory
Motivation is driven by external stimuli or rewards—things in the environment that “pull” behavior, rather than internal needs that “push” it. |
🧠 Contrast this with Drive Reduction Theory, which is about relieving internal tension. In Incentive Theory, the reward exists outside the body. |
What Counts as an Incentive? |
Tangible: Money, food, prizes, grades, status symbols |
Social: Praise, approval, recognition |
Emotional: Avoidance of guilt, desire for pride or excitement |
Example: You’re not hungry, but you eat dessert because it looks delicious = external incentive overrides biological drive |
Key Psychological Principles Behind It: |
Behaviorism Roots (Skinner-style) |
Aligned with Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement = increase behavior via reward Negative Reinforcement = increase behavior by removing unpleasant stimulus Punishment = decrease behavior via consequence 📌 Incentive theory ≠ just any reward It emphasizes anticipated rewards—you're motivated by the idea of receiving them. |
Expectancy-Value Theory (Cognitive Link) |
People are motivated when they believe the reward is attainable and valuable. |
Expectancy – "Can I actually achieve this?" Value – "Is the reward worth it to me?" |
Contrast with Intrinsic Motivation |
Incentive theory = extrinsic motivation You do something for the reward Intrinsic motivation = behavior done for its own sake 📌 Important: External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation → Overjustification Effect Example: If you love painting, but start doing it only for money, your joy may decrease. |
Criticisms |
Doesn’t explain behaviors without obvious reward (e.g., creativity, exploration, altruism) |
External rewards can lead to dependency or burnout |
Not all incentives work the same for everyone (individual values matter) |
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
A theory that explains human motivation through three key psychological needs that drive behavior. |
It’s a learned theory → Needs are shaped by life experiences, not just biology. |
Commonly applied in education, workplace psychology, and leadership studies. |
🌟 The Big 3 Needs |
1. Need for Achievement (nAch) |
Desire to excel, solve problems, and achieve goals. |
2. Need for Affiliation (nAff) |
Desire for friendly relationships, approval, and social harmony. |
3. Need for Power (nPow) |
Desire to influence, lead, or control others. |
Two subtypes: |
Personal Power – Self-centered; controlling others for ego/status |
Institutional/Socialized Power – Directed toward goals, leadership, group success |
McClelland developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to assess unconscious motivation. |
These needs aren’t mutually exclusive—everyone has all 3, but in varying degrees. |
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Proposed by: Victor Vroom (1964) |
Focus Area: Workplace and goal-directed behavior |
Core Premise: |
People are motivated to act when they believe their effort will lead to good performance, and that performance will lead to desirable rewards. |
Motivation = Expectation + Instrumentality + Value |
The Three Core Components (E–I–V) |
1. Expectancy (E): “If I try hard, will I succeed?” |
This is the belief that your effort will lead to improved performance. |
Influenced by: Skill level, Past experiences, Confidence, Support/resources, Goal clarity |
📌 If a person thinks trying won’t help → motivation drops |
2. Instrumentality (I): “If I perform well, will I get the reward?” |
This is the belief that good performance will actually lead to a specific outcome or reward. |
Influenced by: Trust in the system, Transparent reward policies, History of outcomes, Relationship with authority figures |
📌 If rewards feel inconsistent or unfair → instrumentality drops |
3. Valence (V): “Do I care about the reward?” |
This is the value placed on the reward—how desirable it is to the individual. |
It’s subjective: One person may want money Another may value recognition or time off A third may not care at all |
📌 Even if effort and outcomes are predictable, if the reward is meaningless, motivation still drops |
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