Family and Dynamic System
Families form complex social systems |
Each family member affects others and their relationships |
Significant changes create imbalance or disequilibrium |
Breakdown of old patterns and new patterns emerge |
Even minor events can have major consequences |
Extended families can play a role, particularly in cultural minority and single-parent families |
Some adolescents create and identify with “chosen” families |
Parenting Dimension & Style
ETHNIC AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PARENTING
Ethnic minority parents have a tendency to stress obedience |
Some demonstrate harsh discipline with little or no explanations |
Recently a fifth parenting style has been identified |
Traditional parenting: strict authority and warmth, Most common parenting style outside of North America and Europe • Stress role of customs and traditions for guiding behaviour • Prioritize an individual’s obligation to community rather than individual needs |
Positive effects of authoritative parenting have also been found in adolescents who identify as ethnic minorities |
Effects of Parenting Styles
Challenges of Visiting Incarcerated Parents
Prison Design and Protocol
Traumatic security procedures
Unsuitable meeting conditions
Lack of physical contact during visit
Lack of privacy
Negative attitudes of staff
Physical appearance of parent
Emotional reaction of parent
Experience separation anxiety after visit
Increased aggression and anxiety following visits |
Protective Factors Youth with Incarcerated Parents
Awareness of parent’s incarceration
Attachment security with caregivers and
incarcerated parents
Consistent contact with incarcerated parents
Access to peer support and community
resources
Opportunities for mentorship and academic
support |
Impact of Maternal & Paternal Incarceration
Mothers in prison are more likely to:
Be the custodial parent prior to incarceration
Have serious mental health issues
Be socially and economically disadvantaged compared to fathers in prison
Maternal incarceration more often results in changes in caretakers and
residences
Children of women in prison are more likely placed in foster care
Some suggest maternal incarceration has a higher risk for internalizing
symptoms whereas, paternal incarceration has a higher risk for delinquent
behaviours.
Gender specific effects have also been found |
Impact of Maternal & Paternal Incarceration
Mothers in prison are more likely to:
Be the custodial parent prior to incarceration
Have serious mental health issues
Be socially and economically disadvantaged compared to fathers in prison
Maternal incarceration more often results in changes in caretakers and
residences
Children of women in prison are more likely placed in foster care
Some suggest maternal incarceration has a higher risk for internalizing
symptoms whereas, paternal incarceration has a higher risk for delinquent
behaviours.
Gender specific effects have also been found |
Sibling Abuse
Sibling abuse is the most common form of domestic violence |
Researchers suggest it may be the greatest unrecognized form of abuse that affects children and adolescents |
Physical abuse has been the most common reported form |
Experiencing sibling abuse has been associated with an increased risk of: • Clinical anxiety • Clinical depression • Self-harm behaviours |
Behavioural Genetics Research in Families
Types of genotype-environment correlations (GECs |
Passive: parents create environments associated with their traits which are similar to their child’s traits |
Evocative: child’s traits evoke particular responses in others |
Active: child seeks settings that align with their traits |
Behavioural genetics focuses examining the influence of genes and
environment by studying families
•Twin studies and adoptive studies
• Assess effects of nature and nurture
• Impact of shared and nonshared environmental influences
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Autonomy in Families
Emotional |
Behavioural |
Development of internal sources of emotional strength and security |
Ability to make one’s own decisions |
No longer as dependent on parents for comfort and reassurance |
Take responsibility for consequences |
Able to see that parents have own needs |
Everyday actions and larger decisions |
Autonomy – ability to act independent and a willingness to take responsibility for one’s actions
Control in Families
Psychological |
Behavioural |
Attempt at controlling adolescents by manipulating thoughts, feelings and attachment |
Rules, restrictions, and limits parents place on their adolescent’s activities |
Intrusive form of control |
Focus on guiding and controlling behaviour |
E.g., inducing guilt and withdrawing love as form of punishment |
Uses structure and tracking to monitor behaviour |
Linked to anxiety and depression |
Linked to less delinquency, drug, and alcohol use |
Feedback Loops in Families
Families are constantly adapting, changing, or responding to situations • Daily events • Long-term developmental challenges and changes |
Families tend to strive for a sense of balance |
Feedback loops is used to describe the patterns of interaction and communication |
They either cause change or maintain patterns in families – both positively and negatively |
Communication, responses, and interactions are adaptive and impacted by other family member’s behaviours |
Positive/Negative Feedback Loop
Increase or decrease of behaviour in one family member results in a change of response in another family member in the same direction |
Each family member’s response tends to amplify the other members’ response |
Creates a continuous loop |
Changes stability in family system |
Can facilitate changes towards growth or dissolution |
Negative Feedback Loop
• Change in behaviour in one family member results in a change in another family
member’s response in the opposite direction
• Maintains stability, balance, and consistency in the family system while minimizing
change
Role of Siblings in Adolescence
Siblings as models, teachers, partners, critics |
•Complementary roles- Older and younger siblings |
Reciprocal roles- Mutual and equal support |
Deidentification- Defining oneself as different from siblings |
Sibling collusion- Coalitions that promote deviance |
Effects of ACEs across the Lifespan
Collaborative Approach to Building Resilience
KIP Canada’s Approaches to Support
1. Anti-Oppressive
2. Trauma-Informed
3. Strengths-Based Approach
4. Youth-Centred
Youth Advisory Committee
Benefits of Visiting Incarcerated Parents
Allows parents and children to maintain their existing relationship
Provides an opportunity for children to express emotions
Allows parents to work out their feelings about separation and loss and help children work out their
issues
Allows for children to see that their parent is alive
Reduces fears about prison conditions
Reduces children`s feelings of abandonment
Associated with lowered recidivism rates |
Youth & Young Adults
Experience anger at parent and anger at system
Isolation and stigma
Feel ashamed, sad, loss, loneliness , guilt
Avoidance and denial
Early emancipation and role reversal
Practical and emotional caretaking
Rationalize parental behaviour as necessary
Use of maladaptive coping strategies (e.g., drug use)
Negative impact on academic performance |
DIVERSE FAMILY DYNAMICS
• Lone-parent families |
Foster and Adoptive families |
Multi-generational families |
Transnational and military families |
Remarriage and Stepfamilies |
Dual-earner families |
Same-gender families |
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Impact of Pre-Trial & Trial
Changes to daily routines
Management of explanation for parent’s absence
Slow court procedures often result in prolonged parental deprivation
without resolution
Children worry about well-being of parent and outcome of trial
Financial pressures due to loss of jobs and legal fees
Difficulty maintaining contact |
Emotional Impact
Every child and situation are unique,
many children report experiencing these
emotions following parental incarceration:
Sadness
Fear
Angry
Anxiety
Rejected
Abandoned
Relief
Shame and guilt |
Short Term Impact: Arrest Phase
1 in 5 children are present at time of arrest |
Over 50% of children who witness arrest are under 7 years old |
Children often experience post-traumatic stress and its common co-occurring
symptoms (Phillips & Zhao, 2010)
Nightmares and flashbacks
Sleep disturbances
Developmental regression
Depression
Experiences of Parental Incarceration
Greater number of children have a parent in jail compared to prison |
More children experience paternal incarceration compared to maternal incarceration |
Majority of children experience multiple separations from an incarcerated parent |
Most children and guardians report having contact with parents prior to incarceration |
Ambiguous loss and grief, shame and stigma, family secrecy, and isolation have been reported by children separated from an incarcerated parent |
Paternal incarceration has been associated with food insecurity |
Stages of Impact
Arrest- Pre-Trial-Detention -Incarceration -Release
Research on Outcomes
Parental incarceration has been associated with several adverse
outcomes.
Internalizing symptoms (Murray & Farrington, 2008)
Developmental regression (Murray, 2005)
Externalizing behaviours and conduct disorders (Aaron & Dallaire, 2010)
Substance use and gang involvement (Midgley & Lo, 2013)
Poor academic achievement, school truancy, dropping out of
school (Cho, 2009)
Long-term poor mental health (Parke & Clarke-Stewart, 2001)
Becoming incarcerated as a youth and adult |
Intergenerational Trauma and Oppression
Intergenerational trauma and oppression have been found in families affected by the justice system |
Incarcerated parents report histories of: Emotional, physical, & sexual abuse; Personal & familial struggles with mental health and substance use Lived experiences of parental criminality and incarceration Involvement with child protection services Poverty Surviving residential schools |
Adverse childhood experiences, loss, oppression, and intergenerational trauma are particularly common among Indigenous families |
Attachment Theory & Ambiguous Loss
Emphasized the importance of early interactions and the bond formed between parent and infant |
Early relationships influence the development of subsequent close relationships, wellbeing, and coping behaviours |
Disruptions in parent-child relationship such as prolonged separation can result in an insecure attachment which has been associated with a myriad of adverse outcomes |
Uncertainty and ambiguity associated with the loss of an incarcerated parent has been identified as a form of ambiguous loss (Bocknek et al., 2008) |
Many children experience complex trauma and grieve the loss of their parent (Knudsen, 2016) |
RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES & APPROACHES
Effects of Divorce on Adolescents
Divorce increasingly widespread in Canada
•Negative effects of divorce on teens
•Increased substance use, depression, romantic difficulty
•Early sexual activity; lower achievement
•Most teens make healthy adjustment with time
•Problems often show up before divorce
Impact of ACEs on Adolescents
Depressed mood • Anxiety • Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms • Risk-taking behavior • Lower academic achievement • Early pregnancy • Eating disorders • Substance use • Suicide attempts |
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