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The Opium Wars Lecture Cheat Sheet (DRAFT) by

The Opium Wars Lecture notes

This is a draft cheat sheet. It is a work in progress and is not finished yet.

Compre­hensive Overview

The Opium Wars, which took place during the mid-19th century, were a signif­icant turning point in Chinese history and the broader history of East-West relations. They are often seen as the start of what China calls the "­Century of Humili­ati­on,­" a period of foreign domination and internal strife. These conflicts were primarily between China (under the Qing Dynasty) and Great Britain, with France later joining in the second conflict. The wars were largely about trade, sovere­ignty, and the clash of cultures and economic systems.

Background and Context

China in the Early 19th Century
Political Structure: The Qing Dynasty was ruling China, which was a highly centra­lized empire with a rigid social hierarchy. The emperor was seen as the "Son of Heaven­," with absolute authority.
 
Economic System: China had a largely agrarian economy with a strong emphasis on self-s­uff­ici­ency. The Qing government controlled foreign trade strictly, limiting it to the port of Canton (Guang­zhou) under the Canton System.
 
Canton System: Foreign merchants were allowed to trade only in Canton and only through a limited number of Chinese merchants known as "­hon­gs."­ This system severely restricted Western access to the Chinese market.
The British Empire and Its Trade Interests
Industrial Revolu­tion: By the early 19th century, Britain was undergoing rapid indust­ria­liz­ation, which increased its need for raw materials and markets for its manufa­ctured goods.
 
British Trade Deficit with China: Britain had a signif­icant trade deficit with China due to high demand for Chinese tea, silk, and porcelain, while China showed little interest in British manufa­ctured goods.
 
Opium as a Solution: To correct this trade imbalance, British merchants began exporting opium, grown in Britis­h-c­ont­rolled India, to China.
The Opium Trade
Opium Introd­uction: Opium had been used in China for medicinal purposes, but its recrea­tional use grew rapidly in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
 
Expansion of the Trade: British traders, partic­ularly through the East India Company, began to smuggle opium into China on a large scale. By the 1820s and 1830s, opium addiction became a signif­icant social problem in China.
 
Chinese Government Response: The Qing govern­ment, recogn­izing the social and economic damage caused by the opium trade, attempted to enforce bans on opium, but corruption and local resistance made these efforts largely ineffe­ctive.

The First Opium War (1839-­1842)

Immediate Causes
Lin Zexu's Anti-Opium Campaign: In 1839, the Qing government appointed Lin Zexu as a special commis­sioner to suppress the opium trade. Lin took strong measures, including confis­cating and destroying over 20,000 chests of opium in Canton.
 
British Reaction: The British govern­ment, under pressure from opium traders, demanded compen­sation and refused to accept Lin's actions. Tensions escalated when Lin blocked British ships from supplying fresh water in Macao and the Pearl River.
Major Events and Battles
Battle of Kowloon (1839): The conflict began with a skirmish between British and Chinese forces in Kowloon. The British, with their superior naval power, quickly escalated the conflict.
 
Naval Campaigns: The British navy, using advanced steam-­powered ships, blockaded Chinese ports and bombarded coastal cities, including Canton, Ningbo, and Zhoushan.
 
Capture of Nanking (1842): The British forces eventually captured Nanking (Nanjing), which led to negoti­ations to end the war.
The Treaty of Nanking (1842)
The Treaty of Nanking was highly unfavo­rable to China
 
Cession of Hong Kong: China ceded Hong Kong Island to Britain.
 
Indemnity: China had to pay a large indemnity to Britain.
 
Opening of Ports: Five ports (Canton, Amoy, Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai) were opened to British trade and residence.
 
Extrat­err­ito­ria­lity: British citizens in these ports were subject to British, not Chinese, law.
 
Impact on China: The Treaty of Nanking marked the beginning of the "­Treaty Ports" system and the loss of Chinese sovere­ignty over its own trade and legal systems.
 

The Second Opium War (1856-­1860)

Causes and Preludes
Treaty Violations and British Ambitions: Britain was dissat­isfied with the implem­ent­ation of the Treaty of Nanking and sought further conces­sions. The Qing government was reluctant to open up more ports or legalize the opium trade.
 
Arrow Incident (1856): The immediate cause of the Second Opium War was the boarding of the Britis­h-r­egi­stered ship Arrow by Chinese officials in Canton, which the British claimed was a violation of their extrat­err­itorial rights.
 
French Involv­ement: France joined the conflict after the execution of a French missionary in China.
Major Events and Battles
Capture of Canton (1857): Anglo-­French forces captured Canton after a prolonged siege, further humili­ating the Qing govern­ment.
 
Tianjin Campaign (1858): The combined British and French forces moved north and captured the Dagu Forts, leading to the occupation of Tianjin.
 
Burning of the Summer Palace (1860): In retali­ation for the torture and execution of British and French envoys, Anglo-­French forces looted and burned the Old Summer Palace (Yuanm­ing­yuan) in Beijing.
Treaties of Tianjin (1858) and Beijing (1860)
Treaty of Tianjin: Initially signed in 1858, it granted Western powers further privil­eges, including the right to establish embassies in Beijing and legalize the opium trade.
 
Treaty of Beijing: Following the capture of Beijing, the Treaty of Beijing reaffirmed and expanded the conces­sions made in the Treaty of Tianjin, including ceding the Kowloon Peninsula to Britain.

Conseq­uences and Impact

Impact on China
Loss of Sovere­ignty: The Opium Wars marked the beginning of the "­Century of Humili­ati­on,­" during which China was subjected to numerous "­unequal treati­es" that eroded its sovere­ignty.
 
Economic Impact: The opening of treaty ports and the legali­zation of opium trade disrupted China's tradit­ional economy and led to increased foreign exploi­tation.
 
Internal Strife: The weakened Qing government faced increasing internal rebellion, most notably the Taiping Rebellion (1850-­1864), which further destab­ilized the country.
Impact on Britain
Expansion of Empire: The wars solidified Britain's presence in Asia, leading to increased trade and the expansion of its colonial empire, partic­ularly in Hong Kong and other treaty ports.
 
Economic Gains: Britain reaped signif­icant economic benefits from the opium trade and the broader opening of Chinese markets.
Global Impact
Precedent for Imperi­alism: The Opium Wars set a precedent for Western imperial powers to impose their will on weaker nations through military force and "­gunboat diplom­acy."
 
Shift in Global Trade: The opening of China marked a signif­icant shift in global trade patterns, with Western powers increa­singly dominating Asian markets.
 

Analysis and Interp­ret­ations

Perspe­ctives on the Opium Wars
Chinese Perspe­ctive: The Opium Wars are seen as a national tragedy, the beginning of a period of foreign domination and internal weakness that lasted until the mid-20th century.
 
British Perspe­ctive: At the time, many in Britain saw the wars as a necessary means to open China to free trade, though modern perspe­ctives often criticize the moral implic­ations of promoting opium addiction.
 
Global Perspe­ctive: The Opium Wars are a clear example of the darker side of imperi­alism, where economic interests were priori­tized over human welfare and sovere­ignty.
Legacy of the Opium Wars
Historical Memory: The Opium Wars remain a sensitive topic in China, symbol­izing the dangers of foreign domination and the importance of national strength and unity.
 
Ongoing Impact: The legacy of the Opium Wars continues to influence China's foreign policy, partic­ularly its emphasis on sovere­ignty and resistance to foreign interf­erence.

Conclusion

The Opium Wars were a pivotal moment in Chinese and world history, with far-re­aching conseq­uences that shaped the modern world. They illustrate the devast­ating impact of imperi­alism, the clash of cultures and economic systems, and the long-term effects of historical trauma on national identity and policy. Unders­tanding the Opium Wars is crucial to unders­tanding the subsequent develo­pment of China and its relations with the West, as well as the broader patterns of global history during the 19th century.