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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{Intro to Neuroscience Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{Varda} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/165279/cs/40515/}}}
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  \mymulticolumn{2}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheatographer}}  \\
  \vspace{-2pt}Varda \\
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Not Yet Published.\\
   Updated 11th December, 2023.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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\begin{multicols*}{2}

\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 1}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{{\bf{Cellular Components of the nervous system}} \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
Neurons \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
- Dendrites and axon's are wrapped with myelin   \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
- Synapse - Communication point  \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
{\bf{CNS}}  - Myelin sheath- Oligodendrocytes  \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
{\bf{PNS}} - Myelin Sheath - Schwann Cells  \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
{\emph{Cajal}}- Neurons are polarized establishing directional flow reflected by molecular specializations. \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 3)
{\bf{{\emph{Neurons}}}} \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
- Protein synthesis occurs in the soma \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
- Long axon with a terminal where synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters \textless{}- presynaptic cells   \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 3)
-Postsynaptic cells have receptors  \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 1)
Divergence - Few to many  \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 1)
Convergence - Many to few  \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 1)
{\bf{{\emph{Glia Cells}}}} \newline % Row Count 18 (+ 1)
CNS - Brain + Spinal Cord  \newline % Row Count 19 (+ 1)
- Astrocytes - blood-brain barrier + buffer ions/neurotransmitters  \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 2)
- Oligodendrocytes - myelinate neuronal axons  \newline % Row Count 22 (+ 1)
-Microglia - macrophage activity + secrete cytokines  \newline % Row Count 24 (+ 2)
PNS - Extension of CNS \newline % Row Count 25 (+ 1)
- Schwann cells - myelinate neuronal axons + participate in recovery of function resulting from neuronal damage  \newline % Row Count 28 (+ 3)
{\bf{Afferent - towards the CNS Efferent- Away from the CNS}} \newline % Row Count 30 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\vfill
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 1 (cont)}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{{\bf{Signals can be excitatory, Inhibitory or Modulatory}} \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
Input-output geometry  \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
- tap - Sensory neuron excites and inhibits motor neuron - Motor  conducts action potential causing contraction - Flexor relaxes due to inhibition - Leg extends \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 4)
Optogenetics - Genes introduced, monitor and control activity to light signals by chemical signals  \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
{\bf{Organization by type of info}} - Unity of function  \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 2)
{\bf{Topographic Maps}} - Parallel Pathways  \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 1)
{\bf{Computational Map}} - Time/order of input \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 1)
Lesion Studies - direction of information flow  \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 1)
          - Transgenic reporter - specific genes  \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 1)
          - Aintibody labeling - specific proteins  \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 2)
          - In Situ hybridization - localizing mRNA - particular protein  \newline % Row Count 19 (+ 2)
Receptive Field - region in sensory space where a neuron will respond  \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 2)
Organization of HNS  \newline % Row Count 22 (+ 1)
- Visceral Motor Neurons - synapse with peripheral motor neurons in autonomic ganglion  \newline % Row Count 24 (+ 2)
- Sympathetic division: originate at Sympathetic trunk at thoracic and lumbar levels  \newline % Row Count 26 (+ 2)
- Parasympathetic division - orig @ brainstem and sacral levels  \newline % Row Count 28 (+ 2)
- Enteric division: Gastrointestinal tract  \newline % Row Count 29 (+ 1)
- Gray Matter : Cell Bodies  \newline % Row Count 30 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 1 (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{- White Matter : Myelin-covered axon tracts BRAIN - Commissures SPINAL CORD - Columns  \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
Genomics - analysis of the complete DNA seq of species/individual  \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
Homozygosity Mapping - Identify multiple genes associated with disorders - Individual/family  \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
Genome-wide association studies - Analysis in inheritance of large cohorts  \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
Transgenic animals - introduce novel gene into stem/zygote cells  \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 2)
{\bf{{\emph{Knock-in/out}}}} \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
-Homologous recombination - Recombining DNA sequence into genome \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 2)
-Conditional Mutations - preventing mRNA becoming protein  \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 2)
- Gene Editing - CRISPER-Cas9 - Specific mutations into gene% Row Count 17 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 2}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Electrical Signals of a Neve Cells  \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
Concentration gradients from charged protein molecules and ions create a measurable electrical gradient.  \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 3)
electrical gradient - potential difference across the cell membrane.  \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
Resting membrane - constant voltage at cell rest (-40\_-90) \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
Synaptic potential - Change in potential one neuron stimulates another via synapses using a neurotransmitter  \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 3)
Action Potential - Nerve impulse/spike travels along an axon  \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 2)
{\bf{Passive electrical response}} - no response to the membrane potential  \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 2)
{\bf{Hyperpolarization}} - stimulus casing the membrane to go negative than the resting potential  \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 2)
{\bf{Active electrical response}} - stimulus causing the membrane potential to increase past threshold - depolarizing action potential  \newline % Row Count 20 (+ 3)
Stimilus intensity - Action potential frequency  \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 1)
Requirements for Generating Cellular electrical signals  \newline % Row Count 23 (+ 2)
1. Concentration gradient  \newline % Row Count 24 (+ 1)
2. Membrane semipermeability through ion channels  \newline % Row Count 26 (+ 2)
{\bf{Nerst equation}} linear relationship between transmembrane concentration gradient + membrane potential  \newline % Row Count 29 (+ 3)
- predicts the electrical potential at electrochemical equilibrium for 1 ion.  \newline % Row Count 31 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 2 (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{{\bf{Resting membrane}} is more permeable to K+ than any other ion  \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
During depolarization - membrane potential becomes more positive  \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
During repolarization - membrane potential becomes more negative  \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
Rising phase, overshoot phase, falling phase, undershoot phase% Row Count 8 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 3}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Chapter 3 - Voltage-Dependent Membrane Permeability \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
At rest, neuronal membranes are more permeable to K+, than to Na+, the resting membrane potential is negative and approaches the equilibrium potential for K+.  \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 4)
During an AP, the membrane becomes permeable to Na+, the MP becomes positive and approaches the equilibrium potential for Na+ \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 3)
MP and Permeability change affect each other  \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
axon membrane permeability is voltage-dependent \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
By examining how the inward and outward currents changed, it is possible to measure ion permeability as the membrane potential varied.% Row Count 14 (+ 3)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 4}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Chapter 4 - Ion Channels and Transporters \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
Measurement of currents flowing through single ion channels \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 2)
Ion channels and the currents flowing through them should have several properties :  \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
- capable of allowing ions to move across the membranes at high rates \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
- make use of the electrochemical gradients of various ions \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
- channels selectivity \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
- sense changes in membrane potential \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
The Patch Clamp Method \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 1)
Four configurations in patch clamp measurements of ion currents \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 2)
Cell-attached recording. \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 1)
Whole-cell recording. \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 1)
Inside-out recording. \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 1)
Outside-out recording \newline % Row Count 18 (+ 1)
Patch clamp measurements of ion currents can separate currents through individual channels (microscopic currents) or many channels (macroscopic currents) representing relatively large surfaces of membrane. \newline % Row Count 23 (+ 5)
Microscopic and macroscopic currents have also been shown for single K+ channels \newline % Row Count 25 (+ 2)
Channels for both Na+ and K+ are voltage-gated \newline % Row Count 26 (+ 1)
- They open during depolarization, but at different times \newline % Row Count 28 (+ 2)
- They close during a hyperpolarization \newline % Row Count 29 (+ 1)
- The gates of both channels are closed when the membrane potential is hyperpolarized \newline % Row Count 31 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 4 (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Tetrodotoxin, saxitoxin, μ-Conotoxin  – block Na+ channels; inhibit depolarization. \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
α-Toxins – prolong the action potentials, scrambling information flow. \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
β-Toxins – Cause Na+ channels to open at lower-than-normal potentials, causing uncontrolled action potential firing. \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 3)
Batrachotoxin – removes inactivation and shifts activation of Na+ channels. \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
Dendrotoxin, apamin, charybdotoxin block K+ channels \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 2)
Voltage-gated ion channels: \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 1)
SCN - Na+ channel genes. \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 1)
KCN – K+ channel genes. \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 1)
CACNA – Ca2+ channel genes. \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 1)
CLCN – Cl- channel genes \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 1)
Ligand-gated ion channels genes: \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 1)
Neurotransmitter-gated. \newline % Row Count 18 (+ 1)
Cyclic nucleotide-gated. \newline % Row Count 19 (+ 1)
Transient receptor potential family of genes. \newline % Row Count 20 (+ 1)
Thermosensitive channel. \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 1)
Mechanosensitive channel.% Row Count 22 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 5}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Chapter 5 - Synaptic Transmission \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
- Chemical synapses. \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
Use neurotransmitters and their receptors. \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
Ca2+-dependent neurotransmitter release \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
Unidirectional. \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
Slower. \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
- Electrical synapses \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
Uses gap junctions as ion channels. \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
Bidirectional. \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
Faster. \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
A presynaptic terminal button (top) forms a synapse with a postsynaptic dendrite (bottom). \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
Generation of action potentials in one neuron results in the synchronized firing of action potentials in the adjacent neuron \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 3)
Hippocampal interneurons – one of the few places in the CNS that use electrical synapses \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 2)
Entails electrical (action potential in presynaptic neuron), chemical (neurotransmitter diffusing across the synaptic cleft), and then resumption of electrical (action potential in postsynaptic neuron) transmission \newline % Row Count 22 (+ 5)
Ultimately, action potential in the postsynaptic neuron is generated by the opening of ion channels, thereby changing the membrane potential. \newline % Row Count 25 (+ 3)
	- Achieved through either ionotropic or metabotropic receptors \newline % Row Count 27 (+ 2)
Presynaptic structures: \newline % Row Count 28 (+ 1)
filamentous structures help guide vesicles to active zone. \newline % Row Count 30 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 5 (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Several pools of vesicles exist: only those at the active zone are ready for exocytosis. \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
Postsynaptic structures: \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
Postsynaptic Density (PSD) \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
helps anchor postsynaptic receptors in postsynaptic membrane: prevents lateral diffusion of receptors. \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 3)
Contains many proteins involved in plasticity-dependent processes, such as learning, memory, health, and disease \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 3)
Quantal* release of neurotransmitters. \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
Synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction (nmj) results in end-plate potentials (EPP) in the muscle cell. \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 3)
Acetylcholine is released in discrete packets, each leads to a miniature EPP (MEPP). \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 2)
Spontaneous firings in the muscle cell manifested in MEPPs (Fatt and Katz, 1952).A quantum (plural: quanta) is the smallest discrete unit of a phenomenon \newline % Row Count 20 (+ 4)
Ligand-gated ion channels. \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 1)
Receptor itself is also the ion channel. \newline % Row Count 22 (+ 1)
Also called ionotropic receptors. \newline % Row Count 23 (+ 1)
Fast: postsynaptic potentials responses range: 1-2 msec after an action potential reached the presynaptic terminal. \newline % Row Count 26 (+ 3)
Metabotropic receptors. \newline % Row Count 27 (+ 1)
G-protein-coupled receptors: G-protein complex activated by ligand binding to the receptor. \newline % Row Count 29 (+ 2)
Slow: postsynaptic potentials responses range: hundreds of msec to 1-2 minutes. \newline % Row Count 31 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 5 (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Cascade of phosphorylation events and second-messenger production \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
Release of transmitters from synaptic vesicles. \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
Individual quanta of neurotransmitter released are caused by the fusion of the vesicle membrane with the plasma membrane. \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 3)
Number of quanta released positively correlated with the number of vesicles fusing. \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
The average synaptic vesicle has a diameter of \textasciitilde{} 50 nm, corresponding to about 100 mM acetylcholine \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 2)
Local recycling of synaptic vesicles. \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
Following neurotransmitter exocytosis, fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane is temporary. \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 3)
Retrieved vesicular membrane passes through several intracellular compartments, such as endosomes. \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 2)
Vesicles are loaded with neurotransmitter in an ATP-dependent/proton antiporter process. \newline % Row Count 18 (+ 2)
Vesicles are stored in the presynaptic reserve pool until needed again to participate in neurotransmitter release. \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 3)
SNARE Complex at Work to Exocytose Neurotransmitter. \newline % Row Count 23 (+ 2)
Key Proteins: \newline % Row Count 24 (+ 1)
Vesicular (V-SNARE) proteins: synaptobrevin, synaptotagmin. \newline % Row Count 26 (+ 2)
Target (T-SNARE) proteins: syntaxin, SNAP-25. \newline % Row Count 27 (+ 1)
Synaptobrevin coils around syntaxin and SNAP-25. \newline % Row Count 28 (+ 1)
Synaptotagmin binds Ca2+  conformational change to pull vesicle closer to plasma membrane, which protrudes towards the former, bringing the 2 membranes closer together. \newline % Row Count 32 (+ 4)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 5 (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Fusion of the 2 membranes leads to exocytosis of neurotransmitter \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
Myasthenic Syndromes – abnormal transmission at neuromuscular synapses. \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
{\bf{Concepts 5.3, 5.4, 5.6, and 5.7 will not be covered in this course.}}% Row Count 6 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 6}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Chapter 6 - Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors  \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
Neurotransmitters : \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
- In the presynaptic neuron  \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
- Must be released during synaptic activity  \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
- binds to receptors on the post synaptic neuron  \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
Types - Neuropeptides or peptide neurotransmitters, Small molecule neurotransmitters - acetylcholine, amino acids, purines, and biogenic amines.% Row Count 9 (+ 3)
} \tn 
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% That's all folks
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