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% Document Info
\author{Soraya (Soraya)}
\pdfinfo{
  /Title (wetenschapsfilosofie-engels-w4.pdf)
  /Creator (Cheatography)
  /Author (Soraya (Soraya))
  /Subject (Wetenschapsfilosofie Engels W4 Cheat Sheet)
}

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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{Wetenschapsfilosofie Engels W4 Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{Soraya (Soraya)} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/19522/cs/2665/}}}
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  \mymulticolumn{2}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheatographer}}  \\
  \vspace{-2pt}Soraya (Soraya) \\
  \uline{cheatography.com/soraya} \\
        \uline{\seqsplit{truantsblog}.com}
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Published 11th October, 2014.\\
   Updated 11th May, 2016.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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  Measure your website readability!\\
  www.readability-score.com
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\begin{multicols*}{3}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\vspace{1px}\centerline{\includegraphics[width=5.1cm]{/web/www.cheatography.com/public/uploads/soraya_1413027942_Screen Shot 2014-10-11 at 13.42.48.png}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{• founder of modern general linguistics \newline • studied Indo-European languages (Latin, Greek, Sanskrit)  \newline • thesis on the primitive vowel system in the Indo-European languages \newline • from 1906-1913, de Saussure taught the Course in General Linguistics, which made him famous}  \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Laryngeal theory}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{• First proposal of what it now known as the laryngeal theory. \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
• In analyzing the vowel system of Proto Indo European, de Saussure proposed the existence of a previously unidentified element, now known as a laryngeal, that would account for changes in vowels and lengthening within the paradigm of a root. \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 5)
➝{\emph{ Saussure hypothesized 3 "laryngeal" sounds (h1, h2, and h3) in Proto-Indo-European words.}}  \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 3)
• This proposal was in spite of the absence of this element in any of the daughter languages known in de Saussure's time.% Row Count 13 (+ 3)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Saussure's Succesors}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Prague School:}} developed techniques for the analysis of sound systems in languages!inaugurated phonology \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
{\bf{Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen:}} he development of precise terminology to describe different parts of linguistic systems and their interrelatedness; called glossematics \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 4)
{\bf{American structuralism:}} study of native American languages – terminology and concepts used in Western linguistics inadequate; the only way to describe these sentences is to start from scratch – collecting the data without theory (Bloomfield)% Row Count 12 (+ 5)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Structuralism as a paradigm}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{• first 'paradigm' in linguistics  \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
• the beginning of linguistics as an autonomous discipline ➝ "language must, to put it correctly, {\bf{be studied in itself}}; heretoforth, language has always been studied in connection with something else, from other viewpoints" \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 5)
• moreover, the approach to linguistics had been purely descriptive, not theoretical.% Row Count 8 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cours de linguistique generale}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{• Published in 1916 - written by former students on the basis of notes taken from de Saussure's lectures in Geneva. \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
➝ Innovative approach to the discussion of linguistic phenomena \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
• it presented new views on language that result in {\bf{an independent, isolated object of research}}; \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 3)
• it specified the {\bf{requirements that observations have to meet}} in order to be scientifically relevant; \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 3)
• it provided criteria for what could count as {\bf{adequate explanations}} for these observations; \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 2)
• in other words: it sough to achieve {\bf{descriptive and explanatory}} adequacy.% Row Count 15 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Object of linguistics}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{• speech varies from time to time, place to place and person to person; {\bf{it forms a "heterogeneous mass of speech elements"}}; \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
• "whereas speech is heterogeneous, language as defined, is homogeneous. It is a system of signs in which the only essential thing is the union of meaning and sound-images, and in which both parts of the sign are psychological" = {\bf{object of linguistics}}; \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 6)
• the object does not exist independently from the theory about it; the theory is not so much derived from some independent observable object; instead, the object is formed on the basis of the perspective.% Row Count 14 (+ 5)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Linguistic relativity}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{ "Language is not nomenclature."}} \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
➝  speakers of different languages have different mental representations of "reality" \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 2)
➝  "Without language, thought is a vague, uncharted nebula. There are no pre-existing ideas, and nothing is distinct before the appearance of language."% Row Count 7 (+ 4)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Syntagmatic and associative relations}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Syntagmatic relations:}} relations between elements that are combined within one larger system; these relations define the possible combinations of elements (their distribution) at various levels (word, sentence); "The syntagmatic relation is {\bf{in praesentia.}}" \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 6)
{\bf{Associative relations:}} relations between elements that have a common association (to teach, teacher, pupil etc.); terms in an associative family; "the associative relation unites term {\bf{in absentia}}".% Row Count 11 (+ 5)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Sign}}  \tn
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Signifier and signified}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{• {\bf{Langue}}:  a huge network consisting of elements related to each other (directly or indirectly) by means of syntagmatic and associative relations; \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 4)
• the {\bf{sign}} is a two-sided psychological entity, uniting two elements; the {\bf{signifier}} and the {\bf{signified}}; \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 3)
• {\bf{Signifier:}} the sound-image; "not the material sound, a purely physical thing, but the psychological imprint of that sound"; e.g., CAT; \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 3)
• {\bf{Signified:}} the concept or object that appears in our minds when we hear or read the signifier – the meaning of the word; e.g., 'a small domesticated feline' \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 4)
➝ the object (referent) is not part of the system% Row Count 16 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Langue versus Parole}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Parole:}} the concrete manifestations of language (the "material" or "executive" \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
side); a messy collection of individual utterances \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
{\bf{Langue:}} all concrete manifestations of a particular language, e.g. Dutch or English, exist outside the individual; \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 3)
➝ {\bf{a socio-psychological phenomenon}} – a kind of collective knowledge about language; \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
➝ in the collective mind of a speech community; only partially present in the mind of the individual speaker% Row Count 12 (+ 3)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Principle of arbitrariness}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{• {\bf{there is no direct connection between the sound-image and the concept;}} \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
• a sign is the result of {\bf{convention}}: speakers of the same language group have agreed (and learned) that certain (combinations of) letters or sounds evoke a certain image; \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 4)
• exceptions: onomatopoeic expressions and interjections% Row Count 8 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Signification versus value}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{• {\bf{Signification:}} concerns the (vertical) relation between a signifier and its signified; \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
• {\bf{Value:}} concerns the (horizontal) relation between: \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
1. {\bf{signifieds}} (conceptual viewpoint) and \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
2. {\bf{signifiers}} (material viewpoint) \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
the content of a sign in linguistics is ultimately determined and delimited not by its internal content, but by what surrounds it: the synonyms to dread, to fear and to be afraid have their particular values because they exist in opposition to one another \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 6)
the value of each element is determined by its relations with other elements in the network; outside the network, it has no value.% Row Count 15 (+ 3)
} \tn 
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% That's all folks
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