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% Document Info
\author{Soraya (Soraya)}
\pdfinfo{
  /Title (wetenschapsfilosofie-engels-w3.pdf)
  /Creator (Cheatography)
  /Author (Soraya (Soraya))
  /Subject (Wetenschapsfilosofie Engels W3 Cheat Sheet)
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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{Wetenschapsfilosofie Engels W3 Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{Soraya (Soraya)} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/19522/cs/2586/}}}
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  \mymulticolumn{2}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheatographer}}  \\
  \vspace{-2pt}Soraya (Soraya) \\
  \uline{cheatography.com/soraya} \\
        \uline{\seqsplit{truantsblog}.com}
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Published 11th October, 2014.\\
   Updated 13th May, 2016.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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  Measure your website readability!\\
  www.readability-score.com
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\begin{multicols*}{3}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Principles of Labov (1975)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Principles for determining when informal elicitation is not enough.  \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
➝ {\bf{Consensus Principle}}: If there is no reason to think otherwise, assume that the judgments of any native speaker are characteristic of all speakers.  \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 4)
➝ {\bf{Experimenter Principle}}: If there is any disagreement on introspective judgments, the judgments of those who are familiar with the theoretical issues may not be counted as evidence.  \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 4)
➝ {\bf{Clear Case Principle:}} Disputed judgments should be shown to include at least one consistent pattern in the speech community or be abandoned. If differing judgments are said to represent different dialects, enough investigation of each dialect should be carried out to show that each judgment is a clear case in that dialect.% Row Count 17 (+ 7)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Corpus data}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- to identify and organize a representative sample of a written and/or spoken variety from which characteristics of the entire variety or genre can be induced. \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 4)
- {\bf{concordances of word usage:}}  a state in which things agree and do not conflict with each other  \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 3)
- primary method of data collection before other methods  \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
➝ {\emph{Are corpora too limited? How representative can a corpus ever be?}} \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 2)
- {\bf{Corpus cleaning:}} automatic or manual removal of numerical tables, typographical slips, spelling mistakes, etc.  \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 3)
- {\bf{Corpus annotation:}}	permit certain kinds of analysis and grammar testing ➝  \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 2)
- {\bf{part-of-speech tagging}} \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 1)
• {\emph{The\_ARTICLE boy\_NOUN went\_VERB home\_ADVERB.}}  \newline % Row Count 19 (+ 2)
- {\bf{lemmatization}} \newline % Row Count 20 (+ 1)
• {\emph{going\_GO, went\_GO, goes\_GO, gone\_GO}} \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 1)
- {\bf{parsing:}} encoding trees representing underlying structure \newline % Row Count 23 (+ 2)
-  {\bf{semantic/pragmatic annotations}}% Row Count 24 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Whorfianism}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{According to Whorf, the grammar of a language (rather than the lexicon) cuts up and organizes nature for its speakers.  \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
{\bf{Strong Sapir–Whorf hypothesis:}} language {\bf{determines}} thought and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 3)
{\bf{Weak Sapir–Whorf hypothesis:}} linguistic categories and usage {\bf{influence}} thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behaviour. \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 3)
{\bf{Phenotypes:}} overt grammatical categories typically indicated by morphemic markers  \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 2)
{\bf{Cryptotypes:}} covert grammatical categories, marked only implicitly by distributional patterns in a language that are not immediately apparent. \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 3)
➝ language must be used in order to think \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 1)
➝ the only structure and logic that thought has is grammatical structure \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 2)
➝ linguistic structure is comprised, in part, of distributional patterns in language use that are not explicitly marked% Row Count 20 (+ 3)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Weak vs. Strong Whorfianism}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{➝ {\bf{Medium-strength version:}} language could affect certain aspects of our cognitive functioning without making certain thoughts unthinkable for us \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 4)
{\bf{ Weak versions are viewed as trivial:}} \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
• generally accepted as true \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
• cannot be adequately formulated to develop testable hypotheses \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
 {\bf{Strong versions are viewed as implausible:}} \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
• It would mean that there are thoughts that a person couldn't think because of the language(s) they speak \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 3)
• It would mean mean that the content of any claim based on this would not be able to be expressed in any language it is true of% Row Count 15 (+ 3)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Testing Whorfianism}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Problems with Whorfian studies:}} \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
• most have not adequately utilized both the relevant linguistic and psychological research; \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 2)
• most have focused on optional rather than obligatory linguistic features; \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
• most have not stated hypotheses in a clear, testable way, and \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
• most have not ruled out relevant competing Slobin-like hypotheses \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
{\bf{Dan Slobin (1996):}} when  speakers are using their cognitive abilities in the service of a linguistic ability (speaking, writing, translating, etc.), the language they are planning to use to express their thought will have a temporary online effect on how they express their thought. As long as language users are thinking in order to frame their speech or writing or translation in some language, the mandatory features of that language will influence the way they think.% Row Count 19 (+ 10)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Language Acquisition}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Child language acquisition came to prominence because of Essentialist work in the 1970s and 1980s. All three approaches agree that some unlearned capacities are necessary to learn language. \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 4)
➝ {\bf{General nativism:}} \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
• inductive reasoning ("bottom-up" logic): coming to a conclusion based on your experience, observations, and knowledge up to that point. \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 3)
• defeasible: modifying a conclusion when/if presented with conflicting data \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 2)
➝ {\bf{Linguistic nativism:}} \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
• language cannot be acquired through induction; structural properties must be largely unlearned \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 2)
• the acquisition of languages makes use of unlearned capacities that are non-language specific.  \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 2)
➝ non-linguistic dispositions and mechanisms \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 1)
➝ general cognitive and perceptual capacities \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 1)
➝ language draws on an unlearned system of Universal Grammar% Row Count 19 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{General Nativism}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- Languages are acquired mainly through the exercise of defeasible inductive methods, based on experience of linguistic communication \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
- The unlearned capacities that underpin language acquisition constitute a uniquely human complex of non-linguistic dispositions and mechanisms that also subserve other cognitive functions \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 4)
- Various non-human animal species may well have most or all of the capacities that humans use for language acquisition—though no non-human species seems to have the whole package, so interspecies differences are a matter of degree% Row Count 12 (+ 5)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Linguistic Nativism}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- Language cannot be acquired by defeasible inductive methods; its structural principles must to a very large degree be unlearned \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
- In addition to various broadly language-relevant cognitive and perceptual capacities, language acquisition draws on an unlearned system of 'universal grammar' that constrains language form \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 4)
- There is a special component of the human mind which has the development of language as its key function, and no non-human species has anything of the sort, so there is a difference in kind between the abilities of humans and other animals% Row Count 12 (+ 5)
} \tn 
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% That's all folks
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