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\author{Sahasra M}
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  /Title (anatomy-chapter-38-bio-cheat-sheet.pdf)
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  /Author (Sahasra M)
  /Subject (Anatomy Chapter 38 BIO Cheat Sheet)
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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{Anatomy Chapter 38 BIO Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{Sahasra M} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/181013/cs/38696/}}}
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  \mymulticolumn{2}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheatographer}}  \\
  \vspace{-2pt}Sahasra M \\
  \uline{cheatography.com/sahasra-m} \\
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Published 23rd May, 2023.\\
   Updated 17th May, 2023.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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  Measure your website readability!\\
  www.readability-score.com
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Nutrients}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- nutrients: substances in food that supply the energy and raw materials your body uses for growth, repair, and maintenance \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
- nutrients body needs: water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals% Row Count 5 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Water}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- water makes up blood, lymph, and other bodily fluids \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- water is lost during sweating when it evaporates to cool the body \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
- water vapor is also lost from the body with every breath you exhale \& in urine \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
- humans need to drink at least 1 liter/per day \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
- dehydration leads to problems with circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems% Row Count 9 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Carbohydrates}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- simple \& complex carbohydrates are main source of energy \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- simple carbohydrates or monosaccharides disaccharides are found in fruits, honey, \& sugar cane \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
- simple carbohydrates do not need to be digested or broken down \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
- complex carbohydrates, or starches, are found in grains, potatoes, and vegetables \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
- complex carbohydrates need to be broken down into simple sugars before they can be used  \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 2)
- these molecules are broken down into complex carbohydrate glycogen \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
- sugars not immediately used are converted to complex carbohydrate glycogen, which is stored in liver \& skeletal muscles% Row Count 15 (+ 3)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Fiber}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- fiber contains complex carbohydrate cellulose \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Fats}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- Fats are needed: \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
• to produce cell membranes, myelin sheaths \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
around neurons, and certain hormones \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
• to help the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
• to protect body organs and insulate the body \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
- fats are saturated or unsaturated \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
- single bonds between carbon atoms in the fatty acids -\textgreater{} saturated. \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
- most saturated fats are solids at room temperature (butter, animal fats) \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 2)
- at least one double bond in fatty acid chain -\textgreater{} unsaturated \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
- unsaturated fats are usually liquids at room temperature \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 2)
- vegetable oils have more than one double bond -\textgreater{} polyunsaturated \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 2)
- recommended 30\% of calories from fat \& 10\& from unsaturated \newline % Row Count 18 (+ 2)
- too much fat -\textgreater{} bp, heart disease, obesity, diabetes% Row Count 20 (+ 2)
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- proteins are polymers of amino acids; body can synthesize only 12 of the 20 amino \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
acids used to make proteins \& the other 8 amino acids are called essential amino acids; they must come from food \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 3)
- animal products, including meat, fish, eggs, and milk, contain all 8 essential amino acids \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 2)
- foods from plants, such as grains and beans, do not% Row Count 13 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- vitamins: organic molecules that help regulate body processes, often working with enzymes \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
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• fat-soluble \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
• water-soluble \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
- fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K can be stored in the fatty tissues of the body \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 2)
- body can build up stores of these vitamins for future use \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
- water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and cannot be stored in the body% Row Count 14 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- inorganic nutrients that the body needs, usually in small amounts, are called minerals \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- ex: calcium, iron, magnesium  \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
- calcium: major component of bones \& teeth; iron makes hemoglobin \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
- calcium, sodium, \& pottasium are required for normal functioning of the nerves% Row Count 7 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- food pyramid: grains, vegetables, fruits, milk, meat and beans, fats, sugars, and salts \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
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- food label: information about nutrition. \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
- daily values are based on a 2000-Calorie diet, and nutrient needs are affected by age, gender, and \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 3)
lifestyle \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
- when you choose a food, it should be high in nutrition and low in Calories% Row Count 10 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- you need to eat food to obtain energy. \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
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degree Celsius \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
- average-sized female teen: needs about 2200 \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
Calories a day \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
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Calories a day \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
- regular exercise = need more calories% Row Count 11 (+ 1)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Mouth}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- chewing begins mechanical digestion, which is the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
smaller pieces \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
- the teeth cut, tear, and crush food into small fragments \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
- as the teeth cut and grind the food, salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens food and makes it \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 3)
easier to chew \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
- saliva helps ease the passage of food through the digestive system and also begins the process of \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 2)
chemical digestion \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 1)
- saliva contains amylase, an enzyme that breaks the chemical bonds in starches and releases sugars \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 2)
- saliva also contains lysozyme, an enzyme that fights infection% Row Count 16 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Digestive System Disorders}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- stomach acids sometimes damage the organ's own lining, producing a hole in the stomach wall (peptic ulcer) \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
- most peptic ulcers are caused by the bacterium H. pylori. \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
- other digestive disorders include diarrhea and constipation% Row Count 7 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Large Intestine}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- chyme leaves the small intestine -\textgreater{} enters the large intestine or colone \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- large intestine removes water from the chyme \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
- water is absorbed quickly, leaving undigested materials behind \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
- concentrated waste material passes through the rectum and is eliminated from the body% Row Count 7 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Absorption in the Small Intestine}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- small intestine is adapted for the absorption of nutrients \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- folded surfaces of the small intestine are covered with fingerlike projections called villi \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
- cell surfaces of villi have more projections called microvilli  \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
- these provide an enormous surface area for the absorption of nutrient molecules  \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
- slow, wavelike contractions of smooth muscles move the chyme along this surface  \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 2)
- nutrient molecules are absorbed into the cells lining the small intestine \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
- most products of carbohydrate and protein digestion are absorbed into the capillaries in the villi \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 3)
- molecules of undigested fat are absorbed by lymph vessels% Row Count 17 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{The Small Intestine}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- as chyme is pushed through the pyloric valve, it enters the duodenum \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- duodenum: first of three parts of the small intestine, and is where most digestive enzymes enter the intestine \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 3)
- most chemical digestion \& absorption of food occurs in the small intestine \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
- just behind the stomach is the pancreas \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
- during digestion, the pancreas: \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
• produces enzymes that break down \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
• produces sodium bicarbonate, a base that \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 1)
neutralizes stomach acid so that these enzymes \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 1)
can be effective \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 1)
- assisting the pancreas is the liver, which produces bile \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 2)
- bile dissolves and disperses droplets of fat in fatty foods -\textgreater{} enables enzymes to break down smaller \newline % Row Count 20 (+ 3)
fat molecules \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 1)
- bile is in the gallbladder% Row Count 22 (+ 1)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{The Stomach}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- food from the esophagus empties into the stomach \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- the stomach continues mechanical and chemical digestion \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
- alternating contractions of three smooth muscle layers churn food \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
- chemical digestion: the stomach lining has millions of gastric glands that release substances into the stomach \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 3)
• some glands produce mucus (lubricates \& protects stomach wall) \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 2)
• other glands produce hydrochloric acid (makes stomach contents very acidic) \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 2)
• other glands produce pepsin (enzyme that digests protein) \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 2)
- pepsin and hydrochloric acid start protein digestion \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 2)
- pepsin breaks proteins into smaller polypeptide fragments \newline % Row Count 19 (+ 2)
- other enzymes are denatured by stomach acid \newline % Row Count 20 (+ 1)
- mechanical digestion:  stomach contracts to churn fluids and food, gradually producing a mixture known as chyme \newline % Row Count 23 (+ 3)
- after 1–2 hours, the pyloric valve between the stomach and small intestine opens and chyme \newline % Row Count 25 (+ 2)
flows into the small intestine% Row Count 26 (+ 1)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{The Esophagus}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- from the throat, the chewed food passes through the esophagus, or food tube, into the stomach \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- food is moved along by contractions of smooth muscle \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
- these contractions (peristalsis) squeeze the food through the esophagus into the stomach \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
- cardiac sphincter closes the esophagus after food -\textgreater{} passes into stomach% Row Count 8 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Process of Digestion}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- digestive system: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- salivary glands, pancreas, and liver add secretions to the digestive system, and aid in digestion \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
- digestive system: help convert foods into simpler molecules that can be absorbed and used by the cells of the body% Row Count 7 (+ 3)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Functions of the Excretory System}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- every cell produces metabolic wastes \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
- the process where these wastes are eliminated is called  \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 2)
- skin excretes excess water \& salts in the form of sweat; lungs excrete carbon dioxide \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
- kidneys also play a major role in excretion% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{The Kidneys}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- the kidneys: remove waste products from the blood, maintain blood pH, and regulate the water content of the blood \& blood volume \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
- kidneys (either side of the spinal column near the lower back) \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
- a tube (ureter) leaves each kidney, carrying urine to the urinary bladder (saclike organ where urine is stored before excreted) \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 3)
- blood enters kidney through renal artery \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
- kidney removes urea, excess water, \& other waste products and passes them to ureter \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 2)
- clean, filtered blood leaves the kidney through renal vein \& returns to circulation \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 2)
- renal medulla: inner part of kidney  \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 1)
- renal cortex: outer part of kidney \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 1)
- functional units of the kidney are called nephrons \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 2)
- nephrons are located in the renal cortex, except for their loops of Henle, which descend into the renal \newline % Row Count 20 (+ 3)
medulla \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 1)
- each nephron has its own blood supply: arteriole, venule, network of capillaries connecting them \newline % Row Count 23 (+ 2)
- each nephron releases fluids to a collecting duct -\textgreater{} leads to the ureter. \newline % Row Count 25 (+ 2)
- blood enters a nephron through the arteriole -\textgreater{} impurities are filtered out and emptied into the collecting duct  \newline % Row Count 28 (+ 3)
- purified blood exits the nephron through the venule \newline % Row Count 30 (+ 2)
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{The Kidneys (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- blood purification involves filtration and reabsorption \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- filtration (happens in glomerulus): passing a liquid or gas through a filter to remove wastes \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
- glomerulus is a small network of capillaries encased in the top of the nephron by a hollow, cup- \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
shaped structure called Bowman's capsule \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
- fluid from blood flows into Bowman's capsule \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
- materials filtered from the blood include water, urea, glucose, salts, amino acids, \& some vitamins \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 3)
- plasma proteins, cells, and platelets remain in the blood b/c they are too large to pass through \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 2)
capillary walls \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 1)
- reabsorption: process in which liquid is taken back into a vessel \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 2)
- almost 99\% of the water that enters Bowman's capsule is reabsorbed into the blood \newline % Row Count 18 (+ 2)
- filtrate drains in the collecting ducts -\textgreater{} most water and nutrients have been reabsorbed into the blood \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 3)
- remaining material (urine) is emptied into a collecting duct \newline % Row Count 23 (+ 2)
- urine is primarily concentrated in the loop of Henle (a section of the nephron tubule \newline % Row Count 25 (+ 2)
where water is conserved \& volume of urine minimized) \newline % Row Count 27 (+ 2)
- kidney works -\textgreater{} purified blood is returned to circulation while urine is collected in the urinary \newline % Row Count 29 (+ 2)
bladder \newline % Row Count 30 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\vfill
\columnbreak
\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{The Kidneys (cont)}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- urine is stored here until released from the body through a tube called urethra% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Control of Kidney Function}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- activity of kidneys is  controlled by composition of blood \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- regulatory hormones are released in response to the composition of blood  \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
- you drink a liquid -\textgreater{} absorbs into blood through digestive system -\textgreater{} concentration of water in blood goes up -\textgreater{} rate of water reabsorption in the kidneys goes down -\textgreater{} less water is returned to the blood \& excess water is sent to urinary bladder to be excreted as urine \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 6)
- if kidneys detect an increase in salt -\textgreater{} return less salt to the blood by reabsorption \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
- excess salt the kidneys retain is excreted in urine -\textgreater{} maintaining the composition of the blood% Row Count 14 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Kidney Disorders}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{- humans have two kidneys, but can survive with only one \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
- if both kidneys are damaged by disease or injury -\textgreater{} kidney transplant, kidney dialysis \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
- kidney dialysis:  \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
- Blood is removed by a tube \& pumped through special tubing that acts like nephrons \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
- tiny pores in the tubing allow salts and small molecules to pass through \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
- wastes diffuse out of the blood into the fluid-filled chamber, allowing purified blood to be returned to \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 3)
the body% Row Count 13 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}


% That's all folks
\end{multicols*}

\end{document}