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\author{rentasticco}
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  /Title (memory.pdf)
  /Creator (Cheatography)
  /Author (rentasticco)
  /Subject (Memory Cheat Sheet)
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    {\parbox{\dimexpr\textwidth-2\fboxsep\relax}{\noindent
        \hspace*{-6pt}\includegraphics[width=5.8cm]{/web/www.cheatography.com/public/images/cheatography_logo.pdf}}
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\begin{tabulary}{11cm}{L}
    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{Memory Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{rentasticco} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/177906/cs/46137/}}}
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  \mymulticolumn{2}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheatographer}}  \\
  \vspace{-2pt}rentasticco \\
  \uline{cheatography.com/rentasticco} \\
  \end{tabulary}
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Not Yet Published.\\
   Updated 17th April, 2025.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Sponsor}}  \\
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  \vspace{-5pt}
  %\includegraphics[width=48px,height=48px]{dave.jpeg}
  Measure your website readability!\\
  www.readability-score.com
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Sensory Memory}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Definition}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Sensory memory is the shortest type of memory in the human memory system. It holds sensory information (sights, sounds, smells, etc.) for a very brief period — typically less than a second to a few seconds — long enough for it to be processed further or dismissed.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Key Characteristics of Sensory Memory}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Duration: Extremely brief (milliseconds to a few seconds).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Capacity: Very high, but not consciously accessible.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Function: Acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the five senses.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Attention-Dependent Transfer: Information must be attended to in order to move to short-term memory.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{📂 {\bf{Types of Sensory Memory}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{1. 🖼 Iconic Memory (Visual Sensory Memory)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Modality: Visual} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Duration: \textasciitilde{}250 milliseconds} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Capacity: Very large} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Discovered by: George Sperling (1960)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Experiment: Partial-report technique showed people could see more items than they could report due to rapid fading of memory.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Role: Allows continuity in visual experience (e.g., watching a movie frame-by-frame).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{2. 🔊 Echoic Memory (Auditory Sensory Memory)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Modality: Auditory} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Duration: \textasciitilde{}3–4 seconds} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Sensory Memory (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Capacity: More limited than iconic, but longer duration} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Key researcher: Darwin, Turvey, and Crowder (1972)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Function: Enables understanding of spoken language (e.g., processing a full sentence even after a delay).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{3. 👃 Haptic Memory (Tactile Sensory Memory)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Modality: Touch} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Duration: \textasciitilde{}1–2 seconds} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Still under-researched, but studies show it plays a role in spatial perception and motor planning.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{4. 👅 Gustatory Memory (Taste) and 👃 Olfactory Memory (Smell)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Less well understood} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Potentially longer lasting than visual and auditory sensory memory} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Important in emotional memory and recognition} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧩 Key Concepts Related to Sensory Memory}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✅ Pre-Attentive Processing} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Occurs in sensory memory} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Allows for basic analysis (e.g., shape, pitch, color) before attention is directed.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✅ Masking} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Refers to interference with sensory memory} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Backward masking in iconic memory — when a visual stimulus interferes with another shortly after.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✅ Modality Effect} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{The superior recall of the last items in a list when presented auditorily vs. visually} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Evidence for longer duration of echoic memory} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Sensory Memory (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✅ Change Blindness \& Inattentional Blindness} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Related phenomena showing limits of attention} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Despite availability in sensory memory, unattended stimuli can go unprocessed.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✅ Temporal Integration} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Ability to combine sensory input across time (especially in auditory memory)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Helps in recognizing words or phrases from sounds} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧠 Sensory Memory in Cognitive Psychology}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Buffer Function: Sensory memory acts as a temporary holding zone for raw data, allowing selective attention to process what's relevant.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Temporal Resolution: Sensory memory allows rapid processing of rapidly changing stimuli, helping the system detect motion, changes, or transitions.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Interface for Perception and Attention: It's a precursor to perceptual processing, influencing what information reaches short-term and long-term memory.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Iconic and Echoic Memory in Cognition:} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Iconic memory supports visual search and scene continuity.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Echoic memory is essential for language processing and auditory scene analysis (e.g., distinguishing a voice in a noisy room).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{3}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Key Brain Areas for Sensory Memory}}  \tn
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\seqsplit{Sensory} Type & Brain Area & Description \tn 
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Iconic \seqsplit{(Visual)} & Primary Visual Cortex (V1), extrastriate areas & Responsible for brief visual traces; neural activity can persist briefly even after stimulus offset. \tn 
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Echoic \seqsplit{(Auditory)} & Primary Auditory Cortex (A1), superior temporal gyrus & Stores auditory traces; important for speech recognition and attention to sounds. \tn 
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Haptic \seqsplit{(Touch)} & Somatosensory Cortex & Encodes short-term tactile information for spatial mapping and feedback. \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{4}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Important Experiments on Sensory Memory}}  \tn
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\seqsplit{Researcher(s)} & Aim & Procedure & \seqsplit{Findings/Conclusions} \tn 
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George Sperling (1960) & To test the capacity and duration of iconic memory & \seqsplit{Participants} were shown a 3×4 grid of letters for 50 ms. In the whole report condition, they were asked to recall all letters. In the partial report condition, they were cued (e.g., with a tone) to recall a specific row \seqsplit{immediately} after display. & \seqsplit{Participants} could recall only \textasciitilde{}4 letters in the whole report, but nearly all letters from the cued row in the partial report. This suggested iconic memory has large capacity but brief duration (\textasciitilde{}250–500 ms). \tn 
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Darwin, Turvey, \& Crowder (1972) & To examine the \seqsplit{characteristics} of echoic memory \seqsplit{(auditory)} & Used a \seqsplit{three-eared} man setup: presented 3 streams of spoken letters \seqsplit{simultaneously} from different spatial locations (left, right, center), each with a pitch cue. After \seqsplit{presentation}, a tone cued \seqsplit{participants} to recall from one stream. & \seqsplit{Performance} in the partial report condition was better than in whole report, similar to \seqsplit{Sperling's} findings, but the auditory trace lasted 2–4 seconds, \seqsplit{indicating} longer echoic memory than iconic. \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} }
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\mymulticolumn{4}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Important Experiments on Sensory Memory (cont)}}  \tn
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Crowder \& Morton (1969) – The \seqsplit{"Precategorical} Acoustic Store" (PAS) & To test whether echoic memory stores physical (sensory) \seqsplit{characteristics} rather than meaning & \seqsplit{Participants} heard lists of spoken digits and were asked to recall them. The recency effect was stronger when digits were spoken vs. read silently. & Echoic memory is \seqsplit{precategorical} and stores acoustic \seqsplit{properties}. Stronger recency for auditory lists supported the existence of a \seqsplit{short-lived} auditory store. \tn 
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Neisser (1967) & To \seqsplit{conceptualize} sensory memory, \seqsplit{especially} iconic memory & Theorized based on earlier \seqsplit{experiments}, including \seqsplit{Sperling's} & Coined the term "iconic memory" and described it as a brief, visual sensory store that decays quickly and is separate from visual \seqsplit{short-term} memory. \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} }
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\mymulticolumn{4}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Important Experiments on Sensory Memory (cont)}}  \tn
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Averbach \& Coriell (1961) & To further \seqsplit{investigate} visual \seqsplit{persistence} and \seqsplit{interference} in iconic memory & Presented arrays of letters and used a visual cue (a bar or circle) instead of a tone to indicate which letter to report. Cues were shown at different time \seqsplit{intervals.} & \seqsplit{Performance} dropped when a circle was used, due to masking effects. Showed that \seqsplit{interference} can disrupt iconic memory before decay alone. \tn 
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Phillips (1974) & To test the role of visual \seqsplit{complexity} and matching in iconic memory & Presented \seqsplit{participants} with complex visual patterns, followed by either the same or a different pattern after a brief delay. \seqsplit{Participants} had to say whether they matched. & Accuracy dropped rapidly after \textasciitilde{}300 ms, \seqsplit{supporting} the idea of a \seqsplit{short-lived} \seqsplit{high-fidelity} visual store. \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} }
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\mymulticolumn{4}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Important Experiments on Sensory Memory (cont)}}  \tn
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Treisman (1964) – \seqsplit{Attenuation} theory & To \seqsplit{investigate} whether \seqsplit{unattended} \seqsplit{information} is \seqsplit{completely} lost in auditory sensory memory & Used a dichotic listening task where a \seqsplit{meaningful} message switched from one ear to the other \seqsplit{midstream.} \seqsplit{Participants} were told to attend to only one ear. & Many \seqsplit{participants} followed the message to the other ear, \seqsplit{suggesting} that \seqsplit{unattended} auditory \seqsplit{information} is not entirely filtered out — it is \seqsplit{attenuated}, not erased. \tn 
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Sams et al. (1993) & To measure the duration of auditory sensory memory with \seqsplit{neurophysiological} methods & Used MEG \seqsplit{(magnetoencephalography)} to detect MMN (Mismatch \seqsplit{Negativity)} responses to deviant auditory stimuli after different time delays. & MMN was observed up to 10 seconds after standard tone \seqsplit{presentation}. Showed that echoic memory traces can persist \seqsplit{neurologically} longer than \seqsplit{previously} thought. \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Short Term Memory}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Short-Term Memory (STM): A limited-capacity system that temporarily holds information for brief periods (about 15–30 seconds) without rehearsal.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Capacity: Classically believed to be 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956), though later research suggests it may be closer to 4–5 items.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Duration: Typically 15–30 seconds without rehearsal.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Encoding: Primarily acoustic/phonological, though some visual and semantic encoding can occur.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Forgetting: Occurs due to decay (time-based loss) and interference (mainly proactive and retroactive).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Rehearsal: Repetition that helps maintain items in STM and facilitates transfer to Long-Term Memory (LTM).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧠 Characteristics of Short-Term Memory (STM)}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{1. Limited Capacity} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{STM can hold about 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Later research (e.g., Cowan, 2001) suggests the true capacity may be closer to 4–5 items.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Chunking (grouping items into meaningful units) can increase capacity.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{2. Short Duration} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Without rehearsal, STM retains information for only 15–30 seconds.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{After that, information decays or is replaced.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{3. Acoustic Encoding (Primarily)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{STM encodes information mostly by sound, even if it's seen (e.g., letters visually shown may be remembered by their sound).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Short Term Memory (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Evidence: Conrad (1964) found people confuse acoustically similar letters (e.g., B, D, P) more than visually similar ones.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{4. Vulnerability to Interference} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{STM is very sensitive to both proactive and retroactive interference.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{New info can displace old info (Waugh \& Norman, 1965).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Rehearsal Maintains Information} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Maintenance rehearsal helps retain info in STM.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Without rehearsal, information is quickly forgotten (Peterson \& Peterson, 1959).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Serial Position Effect} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{STM contributes to the recency effect (better recall of last items in a list).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Shows the importance of temporal context in recall.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{7. Information Transfer to LTM} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Rehearsal, especially elaborative rehearsal, helps encode information into Long-Term Memory.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{STM acts as a gateway to LTM in many memory models.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{8. Conscious Awareness} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{STM (or working memory) holds information we are consciously aware of and currently thinking about.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Used for active processing, decision-making, and problem-solving.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{9. Active vs Passive Debate} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Classical view: STM is a passive storage system (e.g., Atkinson-Shiffrin model).} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Short Term Memory (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Modern view: STM is part of Working Memory, an active system involving manipulation (Baddeley \& Hitch, 1974).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{10. Brain Basis} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Associated mainly with the prefrontal cortex, especially for manipulation and attention.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Does not depend heavily on the hippocampus, unlike long-term memory.} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{8.8077 cm} x{8.4623 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Short-Term vs Working Memory}}  \tn
% Row 0
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STM & Working Memory \tn 
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% Row 1
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Temporary storage only & Storage + manipulation of info \tn 
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Passive system & Active processing system \tn 
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Associated with Atkinson-Shiffrin model & Associated with Baddeley \& Hitch model \tn 
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\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{6.3899 cm} x{10.8801 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{STM in Neuroscience}}  \tn
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Aspect & Detail \tn 
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% Row 1
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Brain Regions & - Prefrontal Cortex (especially dorsolateral): Temporary maintenance and manipulation of information.\{\{nl\}\} - Hippocampus: Less directly involved in STM, more for LTM encoding. \{\{nl\}\} - Parietal Cortex: Linked to storage aspects. \tn 
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Neural Basis & - Sustained firing of neurons in the prefrontal cortex represents active STM. \{\{nl\}\}- Functional connectivity between cortical and subcortical areas. \tn 
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\seqsplit{Neurotransmitters} & - Dopamine and norepinephrine are critical for attention and working memory functions. \tn 
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% Row 4
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Neuroimaging Techniques & - fMRI and EEG used to examine load-dependent activation in STM tasks. \{\{nl\}\}- TMS studies show causal role of PFC in STM manipulation. \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{4}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Key Experiments}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\seqsplit{Researcher(s)} & Aim & Procedure & \seqsplit{Findings/Conclusions} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
Peterson \& Peterson (1959) & To study the duration of STM & Presented \seqsplit{participants} with 3-letter trigrams (e.g., "KLP") and had them count backward by 3s to prevent \seqsplit{rehearsal.} & Recall dropped \seqsplit{drastically} after 18–20 seconds → STM has a brief duration. \tn 
% Row Count 14 (+ 12)
% Row 2
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Miller (1956) & To examine STM capacity & Review of memory tasks using digits, words, tones. & STM holds about 7 ± 2 items. \seqsplit{Introduced} the idea of chunking. \tn 
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% Row 3
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Baddeley (1966) & To \seqsplit{investigate} STM encoding & Presented lists of \seqsplit{acoustically} similar and \seqsplit{dissimilar} words for immediate recall. & STM primarily encodes \seqsplit{acoustically} – worse recall for \seqsplit{similar-sounding} words. \tn 
% Row Count 30 (+ 9)
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} x{4.1175 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{4}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Key Experiments (cont)}}  \tn
% Row 4
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Wickens et al. (1976) – Release from Proactive \seqsplit{Interference} & To show that STM can use semantic encoding & \seqsplit{Participants} \seqsplit{remembered} word lists from the same or different \seqsplit{categories}. & \seqsplit{Performance} improved when category changed → STM can encode \seqsplit{semantically} under certain \seqsplit{conditions}. \tn 
% Row Count 10 (+ 10)
% Row 5
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Conrad (1964) & To test encoding in STM & Presented letters visually and asked for recall. & Errors were more likely to be \seqsplit{acoustically} similar (e.g., "P" mistaken for "B") → acoustic coding \seqsplit{dominates.} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Long Term Memory}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Long-Term Memory (LTM) refers to the system responsible for storing information over extended periods—from minutes to a lifetime. It differs from STM in terms of capacity, duration, and encoding.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🧠 Duration: Virtually unlimited (can last a lifetime)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🧠 Capacity: Vast, possibly unlimited} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🧠 Encoding: Primarily semantic, but also includes visual, auditory, and olfactory encoding} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{4.2175 cm} x{6.2419 cm} x{6.4106 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{3}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Types of Long Term Memory}}  \tn
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Category & Subtypes & Details \tn 
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% Row 1
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Explicit \seqsplit{(Declarative)} & - Episodic \{\{nl\}\} - Semantic & Episodic: Personal \seqsplit{experiences/events} (e.g., your last birthday)\{\{nl\}\} Semantic: \seqsplit{Factual/general} knowledge (e.g., Paris is the capital of France) \tn 
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% Row 2
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Implicit \seqsplit{(Non-Declarative)} & -Procedural\{\{nl\}\}- Priming \{\{nl\}\}- Conditioning & Procedural: How to do things (e.g., riding a bike) \{\{nl\}\}Priming: Earlier exposure influences later response \{\{nl\}\}Conditioning: Classical and operant responses stored over time \tn 
% Row Count 23 (+ 12)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}---}
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{LTM (more info)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{1. Autobiographical Memory} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Mix of episodic and semantic memory. \{\{nl\}\} Refers to memories of personal life events. \{\{nl\}\} Related to self-concept and identity. \{\{nl\}\} Brain areas: medial prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{2. Flashbulb Memory} \tn 
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% Row 3
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally charged events (e.g., natural disasters, 9/11). \{\{nl\}\} Research by Brown \& Kulik (1977).\{\{nl\}\} Often high in confidence but not always accurate. \{\{nl\}\} Involves the amygdala and stress hormones (e.g., adrenaline).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{3. Prospective Memory} \tn 
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% Row 5
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Remembering to perform actions in the future (e.g., taking medication). \{\{nl\}\} Involves executive functioning and prefrontal cortex. \{\{nl\}\} Types: event-based (cue-triggered) and time-based.} \tn 
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% Row 6
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{4. Schema Theory and Memory} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Schemas are mental frameworks that influence how we encode, store, and retrieve memories. \{\{nl\}\} Bartlett (1932): "War of the Ghosts" study—people reconstructed stories based on cultural expectations. \{\{nl\}\} Memory is reconstructive, not reproductive.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{5. Encoding Specificity Principle (Tulving \& Thomson, 1973)} \tn 
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% Row 9
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Context and state during encoding affect recall. \{\{nl\}\} If you learn something while sad, you're more likely to recall it while sad (state-dependent memory).} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{LTM (more info) (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{6. Memory Consolidation and Sleep} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Consolidation = stabilizing memory traces. \{\{nl\}\} Occurs during REM and slow-wave sleep. \{\{nl\}\} Hippocampus replays recent events to integrate them into cortex.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{7. Reconsolidation and Memory Modification} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Every time a memory is retrieved, it becomes temporarily unstable and open to modification or distortion. \{\{nl\}\} Important in therapy for PTSD, where traumatic memories can be safely altered.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{8. Dual-Process Theories of Recognition} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Recollection: Conscious retrieval of contextual details (episodic). \{\{nl\}\} Familiarity: Feeling of knowing without full details (semantic). \{\{nl\}\} Supported by studies using Remember/Know paradigms.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{9. Neurotransmitters Involved in LTM} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Glutamate: Key for LTP and synaptic plasticity \{\{nl\}\} Acetylcholine: Important in attention and memory encoding (especially in the hippocampus) \{\{nl\}\} Dopamine: Enhances memory via reward-based learning \{\{nl\}\} Cortisol: High levels impair memory, especially retrieval} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{10. LTM Across the Lifespan} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Infantile amnesia: Lack of episodic memories from early childhood (before \textasciitilde{}3 years). \{\{nl\}\} Reminiscence bump: People recall more memories from ages 10–30, especially meaningful life events. \{\{nl\}\} Aging: Semantic memory often preserved; episodic memory and working memory decline.} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{5.181 cm} x{12.089 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Neuroscience of LTM}}  \tn
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Memory Type & Brain Area(s) Involved \tn 
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Episodic Memory & Hippocampus, prefrontal cortex \tn 
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Semantic Memory & Temporal lobe, inferior parietal lobe \tn 
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Procedural Memory & Basal ganglia, cerebellum, motor cortex \tn 
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Emotional Memory & Amygdala (especially fear conditioning) \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{x{3.6234 cm} x{3.4587 cm} x{4.7763 cm} x{4.6116 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{4}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Key Experiments (LTM)}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\seqsplit{Researcher(s)} & Aim & Procedure & \seqsplit{Findings/Conclusions} \tn 
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% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\seqsplit{Ebbinghaus} (1885) & Examine \seqsplit{forgetting} & Memorized nonsense syllables, tested recall over time & Introduced the Forgetting Curve and Spacing Effect \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 5)
% Row 2
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Craik \& Tulving (1975) & Study depth of \seqsplit{processing} & \seqsplit{Participants} processed words at shallow, \seqsplit{intermediate}, or deep levels & Deeper processing led to better recall \tn 
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% Row 3
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Tulving (1983) & Examine \seqsplit{episodic} \seqsplit{retrieval} & Used \seqsplit{neuroimaging} to study brain activation during memory tasks & Found different areas active for episodic vs. semantic memory \tn 
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% Row 4
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Godden \& \seqsplit{Baddeley} (1975) & \seqsplit{Context-dependent} memory & Scuba divers learned words on land or underwater and recalled them in \seqsplit{same/different} context & Recall was better in matching contexts \tn 
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% Row 5
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Milner (1966) – HM case study & \seqsplit{Understand} role of \seqsplit{hippocampus} & Studied patient HM who had \seqsplit{hippocampus} removed & Showed \seqsplit{hippocampus} crucial for forming new \seqsplit{declarative} memories, but procedural memory remained intact \tn 
% Row Count 39 (+ 10)
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory (1968)}}  \tn
% Row 0
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{The Atkinson-Shiffrin model, proposed in 1968, is one of the earliest and most influential models of memory. It describes memory as a linear process involving three separate stores:} \tn 
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% Row 1
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🔁 Sensory Register → Short-Term Memory → Long-Term Memory} \tn 
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% Row 2
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{It emphasizes encoding, storage, and retrieval as the core processes of memory.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{The Three Memory Stores}}} \tn 
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% Row 4
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Sensory Register	\{\{nl\}\}\textless{}1–2 seconds	\{\{nl\}\}Very large	Raw/unprocessed (modality-specific: visual, auditory, etc.) \{\{nl\}\}Rapid decay} \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 3)
% Row 5
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Short-Term Memory (STM)	\{\{nl\}\}\textasciitilde{}15–30 seconds\{\{nl\}\}	7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956)	Acoustic (mainly)\{\{nl\}\}	Displacement \& decay} \tn 
% Row Count 15 (+ 3)
% Row 6
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Long-Term Memory (LTM)	\{\{nl\}\}Potentially lifetime	\{\{nl\}\}Unlimited	\{\{nl\}\}Primarily semantic	\{\{nl\}\}Retrieval failure, interference} \tn 
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% Row 7
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Key Processes in the Model}}} \tn 
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% Row 8
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Attention\{\{nl\}\}	Focusing on specific sensory input\{\{nl\}\}	Moves info from sensory to STM} \tn 
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% Row 9
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Rehearsal	\{\{nl\}\}Repeating information mentally or aloud	\{\{nl\}\}Transfers info from STM to LTM} \tn 
% Row Count 23 (+ 2)
% Row 10
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Encoding\{\{nl\}\}	Transforming input for storage\{\{nl\}\}	STM: acoustic; LTM: semantic} \tn 
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% Row 11
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Retrieval\{\{nl\}\}	Accessing stored information	\{\{nl\}\}From LTM back to STM for use} \tn 
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% Row 12
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Forgetting\{\{nl\}\}	Loss of stored info\{\{nl\}\}	Each store has different causes (e.g., decay, interference)} \tn 
% Row Count 30 (+ 3)
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory (1968) (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Strengths of the Model}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✅ Clear structure—easy to test experimentally} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✅ First to distinguish memory types systematically} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✅ Explains serial position effect} \tn 
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% Row 17
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✅ Supported by neuropsychological evidence (e.g., patient HM)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Criticisms \& Limitations}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{❌ Oversimplified – memory is not purely linear} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{❌ Too focused on rehearsal – not the only route to LTM} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{❌ Doesn't explain implicit memory or procedural learning} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{❌ Lacks explanation of interaction between STM and LTM (e.g., chunking uses LTM knowledge in STM)} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Baddeley \& Hitch's Working Memory Model (1974)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{1. Why It Was Proposed} \tn 
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% Row 1
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{To replace the oversimplified Short-Term Memory (STM) store in Atkinson \& Shiffrin's model. \{\{nl\}\} Emphasized that memory is not a single passive store, but an active, multi-component system for holding and manipulating information.} \tn 
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% Row 2
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Core Components of the Model}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{a. Central Executive} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{💡 Main control system \{\{nl\}\} Directs attention, allocates tasks to subsystems. \{\{nl\}\} Has limited capacity, doesn't store info itself. \{\{nl\}\} Involved in planning, problem-solving, decision-making.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{b. Phonological Loop} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Deals with verbal/auditory information. \{\{nl\}\} Two sub-parts: \{\{nl\}\} Phonological Store ("inner ear") – holds spoken words briefly. \{\{nl\}\} Articulatory Control Process ("inner voice") – allows rehearsal. \{\{nl\}\} Crucial for language processing and learning.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{c. Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Handles visual and spatial information. \{\{nl\}\} Called the "inner eye". \{\{nl\}\} Involved in navigation, mental imagery, and visual memory. \{\{nl\}\} Later split into: \{\{nl\}\} Visual cache (stores form/color) \{\{nl\}\} Inner scribe (records spatial/movement info)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{d. Episodic Buffer (added in 2000)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Integrates info from PL, VSS, and LTM into coherent episodes. \{\{nl\}\} Has limited capacity. \{\{nl\}\} Useful in working with integrated multi-modal information (e.g., stories).} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Baddeley \& Hitch's Working Memory Model (1974) (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Supporting Research \& Evidence} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🧠 Dual-Task Studies (Baddeley \& Hitch, 1974) Participants performed two tasks at once: \{\{nl\}\} One verbal (e.g., repeating numbers) \{\{nl\}\} One reasoning (e.g., true/false questions) \{\{nl\}\} Result: Could do both, but slower → suggests separate systems (not a single STM). \{\{nl\}\} 🧪 Word Length Effect (Baddeley et al., 1975) Short words are recalled better than long words. \{\{nl\}\} Supports idea of a time-limited phonological loop. \{\{nl\}\} 🎨 Logie (1995) Gave evidence for separate visual and spatial stores in the visuo-spatial sketchpad. \{\{nl\}\} 🧍‍♂️ KF Case Study (Shallice \& Warrington, 1970) Brain damage: poor verbal STM, good visual memory. \{\{nl\}\} Supports the existence of different STM components.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Strengths of the Model}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Explains multi-tasking. \{\{nl\}\} Evidence from brain imaging (e.g., different areas for verbal/visual tasks). \{\{nl\}\} More realistic than the MSM – reflects cognitive flexibility. \{\{nl\}\} Accounts for active processing (not just storage).} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Weaknesses of the Model}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Central Executive is vague – lacks detailed explanation. \{\{nl\}\} Little is known about how subsystems interact. \{\{nl\}\} Mostly tested in lab settings – ecological validity? \{\{nl\}\} May underestimate the role of LTM in working memory tasks.} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Craik and Lockhart's Levels of Processing Model}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Overview and Key Concepts}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Craik and Lockhart challenged the multi-store model of memory. \{\{nl\}\}  Proposed that memory is a by-product of the depth of processing, not of distinct stores. \{\{nl\}\}  Emphasis is on how information is processed, not where it is stored. \{\{nl\}\}  Deeper processing = better long-term retention. \{\{nl\}\}  Memory durability depends on levels of analysis (not repetition alone). \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🔍 {\bf{Levels of Processing}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Shallow Processing \{\{nl\}\}  Focuses on surface features (e.g., structure, sound). \{\{nl\}\}  Includes: visual (what it looks like) and phonemic (how it sounds) encoding. \{\{nl\}\}  Results in weak, short-lived memory traces. \{\{nl\}\}  Intermediate Processing \{\{nl\}\}  Involves some analysis, such as recognizing a word's sound or rhyme. \{\{nl\}\}  Better than shallow, but still not optimal for long-term retention. \{\{nl\}\}  Deep (Semantic) Processing \{\{nl\}\}  Focuses on meaning, context, or relating new info to existing knowledge. \{\{nl\}\}  Encourages elaboration, association, and comprehension. \{\{nl\}\}  Produces stronger, more durable memory traces. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧪 Supporting Experiments \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Craik \& Tulving (1975) \{\{nl\}\}  Participants were asked questions about words requiring different depths of processing: \{\{nl\}\}  Shallow (Is the word in capital letters?) \{\{nl\}\}  Intermediate (Does it rhyme with 'cat'?) \{\{nl\}\}  Deep (Does it fit in the sentence: "He met a \_\_\_ on the street"?) \{\{nl\}\}  Findings: Words processed deeply were recalled more accurately. \{\{nl\}\}  Conclusion: Depth of processing has a direct effect on memory. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Craik and Lockhart's Levels of Processing Model (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✔️ {\bf{Strengths of the Model \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Explains why elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal. \{\{nl\}\}  Emphasizes cognitive processes over storage structures. \{\{nl\}\}  Supported by a range of experimental evidence. \{\{nl\}\}  Influential in educational practices – encouraged meaningful learning. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{❌ Limitations of the Model \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{No clear definition of what counts as "depth" – it's vague and circular. \{\{nl\}\}  Difficult to objectively measure levels of processing. \{\{nl\}\}  May underestimate the role of memory structures (e.g., STM vs. LTM distinction). \{\{nl\}\}  Doesn't explain why deep processing doesn't always lead to better recall. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🧠 {\bf{Applications \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Learning techniques: Encourages elaboration, summarization, and connecting to prior knowledge. \{\{nl\}\}  Useful in designing educational content for better retention. \{\{nl\}\}  Applied in understanding encoding processes in memory disorders. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Tulving's LTM Model}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{📍1. Introduction}} \{\{nl\}\} Proposed by Endel Tulving in 1972 and revised in 1985. \{\{nl\}\}  Argued that LTM is not a single store, but consists of distinct subsystems. \{\{nl\}\}  First to clearly separate Episodic and Semantic memory; later added Procedural and Priming. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🧠 {\bf{2. Main Components of Long-Term Memory}} \{\{nl\}\} a. Episodic Memory \{\{nl\}\} Stores personal experiences tied to a specific time and place. \{\{nl\}\}  Example: Remembering your last birthday. \{\{nl\}\}  Context-dependent and involves mental time travel. \{\{nl\}\}  Neural basis: Hippocampus, medial temporal lobe. \{\{nl\}\}  b. Semantic Memory \{\{nl\}\} Stores general knowledge, facts, concepts, and meanings. \{\{nl\}\}  Example: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France. \{\{nl\}\}  Not linked to personal experience or time. \{\{nl\}\}  Neural basis: Temporal lobe, especially left hemisphere structures. \{\{nl\}\}  c. Procedural Memory (added later) \{\{nl\}\} Memory for skills and actions; often unconscious. \{\{nl\}\}  Example: Riding a bicycle, typing on a keyboard. \{\{nl\}\}  Neural basis: Cerebellum, motor cortex, basal ganglia. \{\{nl\}\}  d. Priming (also called Perceptual Representation System) \{\{nl\}\} Implicit memory where exposure to one stimulus influences response to another. \{\{nl\}\}  Example: More likely to recognize a word you've seen recently. \{\{nl\}\}  Neural basis: Neocortex, visual association areas. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🧪 {\bf{3. Supporting Evidence}} \{\{nl\}\} KC (Tulving, 1989): Brain injury left him with no episodic memory but intact semantic memory. \{\{nl\}\}  Clive Wearing: Severe amnesia; lost episodic memory but retained procedural skills (e.g., piano playing). \{\{nl\}\}  Neuroimaging: PET and fMRI scans show different brain regions activate for episodic vs. semantic tasks. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Tulving's LTM Model (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{✔️ {\bf{4. Strengths of the Model}} \{\{nl\}\} Explains different types of LTM observed in brain-damaged patients. \{\{nl\}\}  Supported by neuropsychological and brain imaging evidence. \{\{nl\}\}  Provides a more realistic, detailed view of memory compared to older models. \{\{nl\}\}  Accounts for both conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) memory. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{❌ {\bf{5. Limitations of the Model}} \{\{nl\}\} Overlap between types of LTM (e.g., semantic memories often have episodic origins). \{\{nl\}\}  Difficult to clearly separate memory systems experimentally. \{\{nl\}\}  Not all memories fit neatly into just one category. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{🧠 {\bf{6. Applications}} \{\{nl\}\} Understanding amnesia, Alzheimer's, and other memory disorders. \{\{nl\}\}  Applied in education, as episodic memory can help encode semantic content. \{\{nl\}\}  Used in therapeutic approaches for trauma and skill training. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Parallel Distribution Processing Model}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Introduction and Overview \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Developed in the 1980s by researchers like Rumelhart, McClelland, and the PDP Group. \{\{nl\}\}  Also known as Neural Network Model or PDP (Parallel Distributed Processing) Model. \{\{nl\}\}  Inspired by how neurons function in the brain. \{\{nl\}\}  Emphasizes distributed, parallel processing of information across a network. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Key Concepts \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Units: Basic processing elements that simulate neurons. \{\{nl\}\}  Connections: Like synapses between neurons; can be strong, weak, excitatory, or inhibitory. \{\{nl\}\}  Nodes: Represent concepts, features, or word meanings. \{\{nl\}\}  Activation: When a node or unit is "turned on" by incoming information. \{\{nl\}\}  Spreading Activation: When activation spreads across the network to related nodes. \{\{nl\}\}  Weighting: Each connection has a "weight" which affects how signals are processed. \{\{nl\}\}  Learning: Occurs through adjustment of connection weights (Hebbian learning principles: "cells that fire together, wire together"). \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧠 How Memory Works in This Model \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Memory is not stored in one place, but is distributed across a network. \{\{nl\}\}  Each memory is represented by a pattern of activation across multiple nodes. \{\{nl\}\}  Retrieval is reconstructive – patterns of activation are recreated rather than replayed exactly. \{\{nl\}\}  More overlapping patterns = more associations = easier retrieval. \{\{nl\}\}  Forgetting occurs when activation patterns become weak or disrupted. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Parallel Distribution Processing Model (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧪 Supporting Evidence and Applications \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Simulations show the model can learn language, recognize patterns, and even generalize to new inputs. \{\{nl\}\}  Explains phenomena like tip-of-the-tongue, semantic priming, and graceful degradation (partial memory loss). \{\{nl\}\}  Has influenced fields like AI, cognitive neuroscience, and psycholinguistics. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{✔️ Strengths of the Model \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Biologically inspired – mirrors how the brain likely processes information. \{\{nl\}\}  Explains how learning and memory are adaptive and flexible. \{\{nl\}\}  Can account for partial recall, generalization, and error patterns in memory. \{\{nl\}\}  Describes how we process meaning, not just store information. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{❌ Limitations of the Model \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Often too abstract or complex to fully map onto actual brain activity. \{\{nl\}\}  Difficult to test and falsify experimentally. \{\{nl\}\}  Sometimes fails to distinguish between different memory types (e.g., episodic vs. semantic). \{\{nl\}\}  May oversimplify cognitive functions by focusing only on activation patterns. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Encoding in Memory}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{📌 What is Encoding?}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Encoding refers to the initial process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in the brain. \{\{nl\}\}  It is the first stage of the memory process (Encoding → Storage → Retrieval). \{\{nl\}\}  Encoding determines the strength, durability, and accessibility of memory traces. \{\{nl\}\}  It is not passive—how we encode influences how well we remember. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧠 Types of Encoding}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Visual Encoding: Based on the appearance of stimuli (e.g., images, shapes, colors). \{\{nl\}\}  Acoustic Encoding: Based on the sound of information (e.g., rhymes, rhythm, verbal repetition). \{\{nl\}\}  Semantic Encoding: Based on meaning; involves elaboration and association with existing knowledge. \{\{nl\}\}  Tactile Encoding: Based on physical sensations (e.g., texture). \{\{nl\}\}  Olfactory and Gustatory Encoding: Rare, but potent when linked with emotional or episodic memories. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🔍 Levels of Processing Theory (Craik \& Lockhart, 1972)}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Memory is influenced more by depth of processing than by separate memory stores. \{\{nl\}\}  Shallow processing: Structural and phonemic processing leads to weak memory traces. \{\{nl\}\}  Deep processing: Semantic encoding leads to stronger and more durable memory. \{\{nl\}\}  Depth is enhanced by elaboration, distinctiveness, and meaning-making. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧪 Key Experiments in Encoding \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Encoding in Memory (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Craik \& Tulving (1975): Found that words processed semantically were recalled more than those processed visually or acoustically. \{\{nl\}\}  Hyde \& Jenkins (1969): Participants who judged pleasantness of words (deep processing) recalled more than those who counted letters (shallow). \{\{nl\}\}  Bower et al. (1969): Hierarchical organization during encoding improves recall. \{\{nl\}\}  Bransford \& Johnson (1972): Context helps encoding; participants recalled more when given meaningful context. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧩 Factors Influencing Encoding \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Attention: Essential for effective encoding—without attention, information decays rapidly. \{\{nl\}\}  Elaboration: Linking new information to prior knowledge improves encoding. \{\{nl\}\}  Distinctiveness: Unusual or unique items are encoded more deeply. \{\{nl\}\}  Rehearsal Type: Elaborative rehearsal (meaning-based) is superior to maintenance rehearsal (rote repetition). \{\{nl\}\}  Organizational Strategies: Chunking, imagery, and mnemonics enhance encoding efficiency. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧬 Neuroscience of Encoding \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Encoding is supported by the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and medial temporal lobes. \{\{nl\}\}  Hippocampus plays a critical role in consolidating encoded information into long-term memory. \{\{nl\}\}  Prefrontal cortex assists in attentional control and selecting encoding strategies. \{\{nl\}\}  Neuroimaging (fMRI, PET) shows increased activity in the left hemisphere for verbal encoding, and right for visual encoding. \{\{nl\}\}  Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and glutamate are involved in encoding processes. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Encoding in Memory (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧠 Encoding Specificity Principle (Tulving \& Thomson, 1973) \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Recall is most effective when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions. \{\{nl\}\}  Context-dependent memory: Environmental cues present during encoding aid retrieval. \{\{nl\}\}  State-dependent memory: Internal states (mood, drug-induced states) influence recall. \{\{nl\}\}  Mood-congruent memory: We recall information consistent with our current mood. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{✔️ Practical Applications of Encoding Research \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Educational psychology: Encouraging meaningful learning and elaboration improves academic performance. \{\{nl\}\}  Memory rehabilitation: Techniques like chunking, visualization, and association aid memory-impaired individuals. \{\{nl\}\}  Cognitive therapy: Re-encoding traumatic memories in safer, new emotional contexts (e.g., EMDR). \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{❌ Encoding Failures \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Encoding failure occurs when information never enters long-term memory due to lack of attention or processing. \{\{nl\}\}  Common in divided attention tasks or passive learning environments. \{\{nl\}\}  Forgetting is often due to ineffective encoding, not memory decay. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Retrieval Processes}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{📌 What is Retrieval? \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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% Row 1
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Retrieval refers to the process of accessing stored information from long-term memory. \{\{nl\}\}  It is the final stage in the memory process, after encoding and storage. \{\{nl\}\}  Retrieval is influenced by how the information was encoded, the type of memory, and retrieval conditions. \{\{nl\}\}  Retrieval can be intentional (effortful) or spontaneous (automatic). \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧭 Retrieval Cues \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Retrieval cues are stimuli or triggers that assist in accessing stored memories. \{\{nl\}\}  They can be external (environmental, verbal hints) or internal (emotional state, mental associations). \{\{nl\}\}  Effective cues often involve associative links formed during encoding. \{\{nl\}\}  Cue overload principle: A cue is less effective if it is linked to many items. \{\{nl\}\}  Distinctive cues enhance retrieval by reducing interference. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🌍 Context-Dependent Retrieval \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Memory is better retrieved in the same context in which it was encoded. \{\{nl\}\}  This includes physical surroundings, people, smells, lighting, and ambient sounds. \{\{nl\}\}  Classic study: Godden \& Baddeley (1975) found divers recalled more words when encoding and retrieval occurred underwater or both on land. \{\{nl\}\}  Context acts as a retrieval scaffold, facilitating access to stored traces. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧠 State-Dependent Retrieval \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Retrieval improves when a person's internal physiological or psychological state matches their state during encoding. \{\{nl\}\}  Includes effects of mood, arousal, drugs, fatigue, or stress. \{\{nl\}\}  Common example: people intoxicated at encoding may recall better when intoxicated again. \{\{nl\}\}  Supports the idea that internal states function like retrieval cues. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Retrieval Processes (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🎭 Mood-Congruent Memory \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{We are more likely to recall memories that match our current emotional state. \{\{nl\}\}  This is not about encoding state, but about bias in retrieval content. \{\{nl\}\}  Depressed individuals, for example, tend to recall more negative life events. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🔄 Recall vs. Recognition \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Recall: Retrieval without direct cues. Requires reconstructing information. \{\{nl\}\}  Examples: Essay tests, free recall tasks. \{\{nl\}\}  Types: Free recall, serial recall, and cued recall. \{\{nl\}\}  Typically more demanding than recognition. \{\{nl\}\}  Recognition: Identifying previously learned information when it is presented again. \{\{nl\}\}  Examples: Multiple choice questions, face recognition. \{\{nl\}\}  Less effortful—relies on familiarity and retrieval matching. \{\{nl\}\}  Recognition is often more accurate than recall due to cue support. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧪 Key Experiments and Theories in Retrieval \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Tulving's Encoding Specificity Principle: Retrieval is most effective when cues match the encoding context. \{\{nl\}\}  Godden \& Baddeley (1975): Environmental context effects in divers. \{\{nl\}\}  Eich (1975): Demonstrated state-dependent learning using mood induction. \{\{nl\}\}  Loftus (1975): Misinformation effect—shows how retrieval can be distorted by post-event information. \{\{nl\}\}  Nelson (1971): Showed that forgotten items can be retrieved when original cues are reinstated. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Retrieval Processes (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🧬 Neurocognitive Aspects of Retrieval \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Hippocampus: Essential for relational memory retrieval and reactivating stored memory patterns. \{\{nl\}\}  Prefrontal cortex: Involved in retrieval effort, monitoring, and decision-making during recall. \{\{nl\}\}  Parietal lobes: Associated with subjective experience of remembering, like familiarity. \{\{nl\}\}  Retrieval involves pattern completion: reinstating parts of the stored trace using cues. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{🔁 Retrieval Practice (Testing Effect) \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Repeated retrieval strengthens memory more than passive review. \{\{nl\}\}  Roediger \& Karpicke (2006): Testing enhances long-term retention better than re-studying. \{\{nl\}\}  Retrieval promotes reconsolidation and deepens encoding pathways. \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{⚠️ Retrieval Failures and Blocking \{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Retrieval failures are not always due to forgetting—can be caused by: \{\{nl\}\}  Interference (retroactive/proactive), \{\{nl\}\}  Cue-dependent forgetting, \{\{nl\}\}  Decay of the memory trace, \{\{nl\}\}  Inhibition or motivated forgetting (e.g., repression). \{\{nl\}\}  Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) phenomenon: Partial retrieval; activation without full access. \{\{nl\}\}  Blocking: Interference from competing memories (e.g., similar names). \{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Forgetting}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{What is Forgetting?}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{orgetting refers to the inability to retrieve information previously encoded and stored in memory.\{\{nl\}\}  It may occur due to weak encoding, interrupted consolidation, trace decay, retrieval failure, motivated forgetting, or errors in memory processing.\{\{nl\}\}  It's not always dysfunctional—it helps cognitive efficiency by allowing us to filter irrelevant or outdated information.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{The Seven Types of Forgetting (Schacter's "Seven Sins of Memory")}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{a. Transience\{\{nl\}\}  Forgetting that occurs with the passage of time.\{\{nl\}\}  Memory traces become weaker or degrade if not recalled or rehearsed.\{\{nl\}\}  Closely related to trace decay theory.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{b. Absent-Mindedness\{\{nl\}\}  Forgetting due to a lack of attention or shallow encoding.\{\{nl\}\}  Often results from distraction or divided attention at the time of encoding.\{\{nl\}\}  Example: Forgetting where you placed your keys.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{c. Blocking\{\{nl\}\}  Temporary inability to access stored information.\{\{nl\}\}  Often manifests as the Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) phenomenon.\{\{nl\}\}  Memory is available but inaccessible at that moment.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{d. Misattribution\{\{nl\}\}  Assigning a memory to the wrong source (e.g., thinking someone else told you something).\{\{nl\}\}  Can contribute to false memories and distorted recall.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{e. Suggestibility\{\{nl\}\}  Incorporation of misleading information from external sources into personal recollections.\{\{nl\}\}  Often observed in eyewitness testimony and memory distortion due to leading questions.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Forgetting (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{f. Bias\{\{nl\}\}  Retrospective distortions caused by current beliefs, emotions, or knowledge.\{\{nl\}\}  People reshape past events to better fit their present view of themselves or the world.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{g. Persistence\{\{nl\}\}  Unwanted memories that intrude into consciousness.\{\{nl\}\}  Often emotionally charged, and seen in PTSD or rumination.\{\{nl\}\}  Contrary to typical forgetting – it's the inability to forget.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Trace Decay Theory\{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Suggests that memory traces fade over time if not actively rehearsed.\{\{nl\}\}  Based on the physiological decay of memory traces in the brain.\{\{nl\}\}  Applies best to sensory memory and short-term memory.\{\{nl\}\}  Peterson \& Peterson (1959): Demonstrated rapid STM forgetting when rehearsal was blocked.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Interference Theory\{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Proposes that conflicting information disrupts memory retrieval.\{\{nl\}\}  Two key types:\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Proactive Interference (PI)\{\{nl\}\}  Older memories interfere with the learning or recall of new material.\{\{nl\}\}  Example: Using your old PIN when trying to recall a new one.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Retroactive Interference (RI)\{\{nl\}\}  New information interferes with the retrieval of older memories.\{\{nl\}\}  Example: Forgetting your old address after memorizing your current one.\{\{nl\}\}  Underwood (1957): Found evidence for PI in list-learning studies.\{\{nl\}\}  McGeoch \& McDonald (1931): RI is stronger when materials are similar.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{17.67cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Forgetting (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Motivated Forgetting (Freudian Theory)\{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Originates from Freud's psychodynamic theory.\{\{nl\}\}  Proposes that people forget emotionally disturbing or threatening memories to protect the ego.\{\{nl\}\}  Two main forms:\{\{nl\}\}  Repression: Unconscious blocking of distressing memories.\{\{nl\}\}  Suppression: Conscious, intentional effort to avoid remembering.\{\{nl\}\}  Anderson \& Green (2001): Experimental support via Think/No-Think paradigm.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Retrieval Failure (Cue-Dependent Forgetting)\{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Memory is stored but cannot be accessed due to a lack of proper retrieval cues.\{\{nl\}\}  Explained by Encoding Specificity Principle (Tulving): retrieval is most effective when context matches encoding.\{\{nl\}\}  Examples: Forgetting a name until reminded by a mutual friend.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Additional Concepts Related to Forgetting\{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon\{\{nl\}\}  Partial retrieval failure – the feeling of knowing something but being unable to retrieve it.\{\{nl\}\}  b. Consolidation Failure\{\{nl\}\}  Forgetting due to interruption or failure during memory consolidation, often due to trauma or interference.\{\{nl\}\}  c. Directed Forgetting\{\{nl\}\}  Intentional forgetting due to instructions or cognitive control.\{\{nl\}\}  Studied using item-method and list-method paradigms.\{\{nl\}\}  d. Organic Causes of Forgetting\{\{nl\}\}  Brain damage, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's, Korsakoff's syndrome), and trauma can impair memory.\{\{nl\}\}  These typically affect episodic and semantic memory, but procedural memory often remains intact.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Forgetting (cont)}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{{\bf{Neurobiological Aspects of Forgetting\{\{nl\}\}}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{17.67cm}}{Hippocampus: Crucial for memory consolidation; damage results in anterograde or retrograde amnesia.\{\{nl\}\}  Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in retrieval, inhibition of unwanted memories, and cognitive control.\{\{nl\}\}  Forgetting may also result from synaptic pruning and long-term depression (LTD) – reduction in synaptic strength.\{\{nl\}\}  Neurotransmitters like glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine influence memory encoding and stability.\{\{nl\}\}} \tn 
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