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  /Subject (PL2131 Cheat Sheet)
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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{PL2131 Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{lightedly} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/76925/cs/18897/}}}
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  \mymulticolumn{2}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheatographer}}  \\
  \vspace{-2pt}lightedly \\
  \uline{cheatography.com/lightedly} \\
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Published 20th February, 2019.\\
   Updated 20th February, 2019.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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  %\includegraphics[width=48px,height=48px]{dave.jpeg}
  Measure your website readability!\\
  www.readability-score.com
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\begin{multicols*}{2}

\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{INTRO TO PL2131}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Learn how to conduct psychological research} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{-	Turning a question into research \newline -	Designing an experiment \newline -	Collecting and analysing data \newline -	Presenting findings}  \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH – the scientific approach}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{1)	Intuition: process of coming to direct knowledge or certainty without reasoning or inferring; forming hypotheses} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{2)	Authority: acceptance of facts stated by authorities; used in designing stage; expert whose facts are subject to testing using the scientific process} \tn 
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% Row 2
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{3)	Rationalism: uses reasoning to arrive at knowledge, assumes that valid knowledge is acquired if correct reasoning process is used; identify the outcomes that indicate the truth/falsity of the hypotheses} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{4)	Empiricism: acquire knowledge through experiences; cognition and perception; empirical observations to be conducted under controlled conditions} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{-	The goal of science: to understand the world we live in \newline -	To acquire knowledge}  \tn 
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\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{2)	Reality in nature: our experiences are real; forms basis for further research; scientists assume that there is an underlying reality that they are trying to uncover} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{3)	Discoverability: it is possible to discover the regularities and reality; must assume that we can discover laws that make experiences real} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{1)	Uniformity/regularity in nature} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{a.	Determinism: the belief that there are causes or determinants of mental processes and behaviour (making sense of the world) \newline b.	Probabilistic cause: causes that usually produce outcomes, the interim and what we get instead when we are seeking to attain the end goal that is determinism}  \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{x{2.48 cm} x{5.52 cm} }
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH}}  \tn
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\seqsplit{Conceptualisation} & adopting a scientific approach; definition of terms \tn 
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\seqsplit{Operationalisation} & construct vs measure; working definition of the construct - specification \tn 
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Hypothesis & forming a testable hypothesis; science is falsifiable; embracing the null; can never be proven to be correct \tn 
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Research study & experimental vs non-experimental \tn 
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Data collection & how do we treat subjects? measurement modes used \tn 
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Data analysis & samples and sample sizes; comparing group scores \tn 
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\seqsplit{Presentation} & presenting research findings \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{MEASUREMENT MODES}}  \tn
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\seqsplit{Nominal} & categories, non-quantitative, uses symbols to classify variable values \tn 
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\seqsplit{Ordinal} & rank-order scale of measurement; cannot assume equidistance \tn 
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\seqsplit{Interval} & equal intervals, no absolute zero point (arbitrary) \tn 
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Ratio & absolute zero point, rank-ordering, equal intervals \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{GOOD MEASUREMENTS \newline -	Reliability: consistency of scores of your measurement instrument \newline -	Validity: extent to which your measurement procedure is measuring what you think it is measuring; whether you have used and interpreted the scores correctly}  \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH}}  \tn
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Quant. exp. research designs & Conducting experiments to establish causations by manipulating IVs and observing changes on DVs \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{Required conditions for claiming causation: \newline -	Association: 2 variables are empirically correlated \newline -	Temporality: cause comes before effect \newline -	Elimination of plausible alternative explanations: effect cannot be explained by a 3rd variable}  \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{3}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{INDEPENDENT VARIABLES}}  \tn
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Levels of the IV and manipulation strength & \textgreater{}2 levels of the IV to conclude causality & Strength: levels of the IV must be distinct and different from each other \tn 
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\# of IVs? & \textgreater{}1 IV!! & Having only one -\textgreater{} misleading \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{3}{x{8.4cm}}{In experimental designs: \newline -	Event manipulation: random assign. into conditions, roughly equal profiles \newline -	Instructional manipulation \newline -	Individual difference manipulation: varying IV by selecting participants that differ in the amt or type of a measured internal state (cannot conclude causality; inherent characteristics)}  \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{DEPENDENT VARIABLES}}  \tn
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In experimental designs & They can be continuous or categorical in nature \tn 
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Number of DVs & There can be alternatives! -\textgreater{} accuracy/response time \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{In experimental designs} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{-	Third variables besides the IV and DV \newline -	Cloud interpretations of the IV-DV rship if uncontrolled \newline -	Blinding to remove bias (systematic ways to account for them)}  \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{EV vs CV}}  \tn
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EV & CV \tn 
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-	Might compete with the IV in explaining the outcome & -	An EV that may eliminate the ability to claim that the IV causes changes in the DV \tn 
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-	Affects absolute outcome but not experimental outcome & -	Creeps in systematically and affects one level of the IV but not the other \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{DESIGNS}}  \tn
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Between (goes through 1 level of the IV) & Within (goes through all levels of the IV) \tn 
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Shorter time to obtain results & Elimination of CVs \tn 
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Random assign. could cause unequal groups of unequal abilities (confounding) & Mental fatigue, floor effects \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL}}  \tn
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Between & Within: counter-balancing to counter sequencing effects (order effects and carryover effects) \tn 
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- matching: alt. method to/can be combined with randomisation & - randomised: possibility that there is a sequence that has a higher frequency of a certain variable \tn 
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- randomisation & - intrasubject: does not solve order effects \tn 
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 & - complete: N!, N = \# of levels of IV; may not have enough participants \tn 
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 & - incomplete: multiple sequences, control order effects, N sequences, only works for even \#; odd \# – create a mirror! \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{Matching: \newline o	Equating participants \newline 	Precision-control: each participant matched with another on selected variables (equal identical attributes); \newline 	Freq. distribution: match groups by equating overall distribution of selected variable – random assign til 2 groups comparable \newline o	Hold variables constant: slicing \newline o	Build the EV into research design \newline  \newline Incomplete: \newline 	Each TC appear equal no. of times in each position \newline 	Each TC precede and follow every other TC equal no. of times}  \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH}}  \tn
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Experimental & Non-experimental \tn 
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manipulated the IV (variability) & did not manipulate the IV (variability due to individual differences \tn 
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can infer causality & can only infer correlation \tn 
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control over EVs & construct and use good test items \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{SURVEY RESEARCH METHODS}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{1.	Match the research objectives.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{2.	Appropriate for the respondents to be surveyed.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{3.	Short, simple questions.} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{4.	Avoid loaded or leading questions} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{5.	Avoid double-barrelled questions} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{6.	Avoid double negatives} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{7.	Determine whether closed-ended, or open-ended, or mixed format questions are needed} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{8.	Construct mutually exclusive and exhaustive response categories for closed-ended questions} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{9.	Consider the different types of closed-ended response categories (measurement modes) – would an interval scale or ordinal scale be more useful?} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{10.	Use multiple items to measure complex or abstract constructs} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{11.	Make sure questionnaire is easy to use; -	Limit contingency questions (redirection) -	Control response bias (social desirability) -	Control response bias (response set) – insert contrasting items} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{12.	Pilot-test – think-aloud technique} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{Need to ensure the validity of questionnaire (i.e., the test items measure what  we had initially set out to measure) \newline Construct is too broad for comfort: need to operationalize \newline Specific operationalization of the idea that we want to pursue and not something else}  \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{x{4 cm} x{4 cm} }
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{DESCRIBING SCORES}}  \tn
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Mean & Variability \tn 
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 & -	Wanting to know how the scores spread around the mean \tn 
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-	Presence of outliers can be misleading & Standard deviation: describing the spread of a group of scores; average amount that scores differ from the mean \tn 
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 & Variance \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{Central tendency: \newline -	Make sense of a group of scores \newline -	Know how our data look like centrally}  \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{INFERENTIAL STATISTICS}}  \tn
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1.	Converting raw scores to Z-scores & 2.	Converting Z-scores to raw scores \tn 
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-	Number of SDs a score is above or below the mean & X=(Z)(SD)+M \tn 
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Z=(X-M)/SD & Distribution of Z-scores: M=1,SD=1 \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{Z-scores \newline -	To describe a score in terms of where it fits into the overall group of scores, create a Z-score \newline -	Number of SDs a score is above or below the mean \newline -	Analogous to a translation; standardisation \newline  \newline !! We describe a group of data scores using a representative value (mean + SD) \newline Obtain a Z-score to infer how a score is 'performing' in comparison to others.}  \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{NORMAL CURVE}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{NORMAL CURVE}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{p{8.4cm}}{\vspace{1px}\centerline{\includegraphics[width=5.1cm]{/web/www.cheatography.com/public/uploads/lightedly_1550636613_media_11b_11b1f138-088a-413f-879c-4655a6caa6ba_phpiz3fAb.png}}} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{x{2.08 cm} x{5.92 cm} }
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{EFFECTS}}  \tn
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Ceiling effect & when an IV no longer has an effect on the DV \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
Floor effect & when a data-gathering instrument has a lower limit to the data values it can reliably specify \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 4)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}


% That's all folks
\end{multicols*}

\end{document}