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\author{julescrisfulla}
\pdfinfo{
  /Title (ap-bio-unit-6-gene-expression-and-regulation.pdf)
  /Creator (Cheatography)
  /Author (julescrisfulla)
  /Subject (AP Bio Unit 6: Gene Expression and Regulation Cheat Sheet)
}

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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{AP Bio Unit 6: Gene Expression and Regulation Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{julescrisfulla} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/122651/cs/22889/}}}
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  \mymulticolumn{2}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheatographer}}  \\
  \vspace{-2pt}julescrisfulla \\
  \uline{cheatography.com/julescrisfulla} \\
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Published 18th May, 2020.\\
   Updated 18th May, 2020.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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  Measure your website readability!\\
  www.readability-score.com
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{DNA vs. RNA}}  \tn
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DNA: & RNA: \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
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double stranded & single stranded \tn 
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% Row 2
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deoxyribose & ribose \tn 
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% Row 3
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A-T & A-U \tn 
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G-C & G-C \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{DNA Comparison}}  \tn
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Prokaryotic DNA: & Eukaryotic DNA: \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
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double stranded & double stranded \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 2)
% Row 2
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circular & linear \tn 
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% Row 3
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one chromosome & usually more than one chromosome \tn 
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in cytoplasm & in nucleus \tn 
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supercoiled DNA & forms chromatin \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} bond alterations to the ends} \tn 
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% Row 1
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{single gene may be able to synthesize more than one protein} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{what makes cells different:} \tn 
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% Row 1
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} cells have different shapes and proteins} \tn 
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% Row 7
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{differential gene expression:} \tn 
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% Row 8
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% Row 4
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% Row 5
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% Row 6
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% Row 1
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% Row 3
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Gene Regulation}}  \tn
% Row 0
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% Row 1
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% Row 2
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{gene regulation determines which genes are turned on/off} \tn 
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% Row 3
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% Row 1
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% Row 2
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% Row 3
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% Row 4
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{}\textasciitilde{}\textasciitilde{} still codes, but not properly (sickle cell anemia)} \tn 
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% Row 5
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% Row 8
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% Row 9
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% Row 10
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} caused by insertions and deletions of base pairs} \tn 
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% Row 11
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} alters the three letter reading frame} \tn 
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% Row 1
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% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
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% Row 2
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{enzymes mediate the process of DNA replication} \tn 
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% Row 5
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{1) helicase unwinds DNA at origin of replication and creates replication forks} \tn 
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% Row 6
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{2) topoisomerase prevents overwinding and single-strand binding proteins support the replication bubble} \tn 
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% Row 7
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{3) primase adds RNA primer} \tn 
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% Row 8
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{4) DNA polymerase III adds nucleotides in 5' to 3' direction on leading strand} \tn 
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% Row 9
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{5) lagging strand grows in 3' to 5' direction away from the replication fork by the addition of okazaki fragments} \tn 
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% Row 10
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{6) DNA ligase seals together okazaki fragments (short segments of DNA that grow 5' to 3' that are added onto the lagging strand)} \tn 
% Row Count 20 (+ 3)
% Row 11
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{7) DNA polymerase replaces RNA primers with DNA} \tn 
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Prokaryotic: & Eukaryotic: \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
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takes place in cytoplasm & takes place in nucleus \tn 
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% Row 2
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several gene transcribed at one time & single gene transcribed at one time \tn 
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% Row 3
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no modifications before translation & primary transcript modified before translation \tn 
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% Row 1
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} carries genetic code to the ribosome} \tn 
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% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} codon} \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 1)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{tRNA:} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 1)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} "transfer"} \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} transfers amino acids to the ribosome} \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 1)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} anticodon} \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 1)
% Row 8
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{rRNA:} \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 1)
% Row 9
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} "ribosomal"} \tn 
% Row Count 10 (+ 1)
% Row 10
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} makes up ribosomes} \tn 
% Row Count 11 (+ 1)
% Row 11
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} ribosomes build proteins} \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Ribosomes}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{made in nucleotide} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{P site: holds the polypeptide} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{A site: holds amino acids} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 1)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{E site: exit site} \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 1)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{some are free and some are fixed} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Leading Strand}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{need RNA primer from DNA primase} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{RNA primer allows DNA polymerase to add nucleotides at the 3' end} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 2)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{can not add nucleotides at 5' end} \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Operon}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{operon: way of regulating genes and is usually made up of a few genes that involve enzymes} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{RNA polymerase: builder enzyme, needed in order to start transcription, needs a promoter to bind to DNA} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 3)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{operator: a part of the DNA where a repressor can bind, if repressor is bound to operator it blocks RNA polymerase which means mRNA can not be made so neither can proteins} \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 4)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{lac operon: operator and promoter region of DNA and three genes that code for enzymes that help in breaking down lactose} \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 3)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} there is a gene that codes for the repressor production and this gene has its own promoter} \tn 
% Row Count 14 (+ 2)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} if lactose is not present, then the repressor binds to the operator and blocks RNA polymerase which means mRNA and proteins can not be produced} \tn 
% Row Count 17 (+ 3)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} if lactose is present, the lactose (sugar) binds to the repressor (repressor can not bind to operator) and RNA polymerase finds its promoter, binds, and transcribes to make mRNA from the genes on operon, the mRNA will be used to make enzymes to break down the lactose sugar} \tn 
% Row Count 23 (+ 6)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} no lactose: "off"} \tn 
% Row Count 24 (+ 1)
% Row 8
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{trp operon:} \tn 
% Row Count 25 (+ 1)
% Row 9
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} evolved in bacteria to deal with absence of tryptophan} \tn 
% Row Count 27 (+ 2)
% Row 10
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} tryptophan is on amino acid which moves proteins} \tn 
% Row Count 28 (+ 1)
% Row 11
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} designed to make tryptophan if it is not present} \tn 
% Row Count 29 (+ 1)
% Row 12
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} if bacteria does not have tryptophan, there is a number of genes that are required to make it} \tn 
% Row Count 31 (+ 2)
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\vfill
\columnbreak
\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Operon (cont)}}  \tn
% Row 13
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} tryptophan fits inside the repressor and the repressor will change it's shape to fit in the receptor} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 3)
% Row 14
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} if a lot of tryptophan is present, then we do not want to make more so the repressor is going to set operator in "off"} \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 3)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chromosomal Mutations}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{involves a change in the structure or number of chromosomes} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{deletion: loss of all or part of a chromosome} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{duplication: reverses the direction of parts of a chromosome} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 2)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{inversion: reverses the direction of parts of a chromosome} \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 2)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{translocation: part of one chromosome break off and attaches to another chromosome} \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Differentiation}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{when a cell changes from one type to another} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{all specialized cells come from stem cells (unspecialized)} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 2)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{DNA contains genes and genes contain proteins that change the way cells look and act} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 2)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{every somatic cell in your body contain the same DNA} \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 2)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{using genes -\textgreater{} expressing -\textgreater{} turned "on"} \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 1)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{the specialized cells can not specialize again and can not go backwards to the stem cells} \tn 
% Row Count 10 (+ 2)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{cells decide what they will be based on internal or external environmental cues} \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 2)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{internal: transcription factors will activate certain genes and turn them on (factors are bunched up because of when the zygote will divide)} \tn 
% Row Count 15 (+ 3)
% Row 8
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{external: (induction) (like peer pressure) a group of cells can induce another group to differentiate by using signals (like diffusion, direct contace, gap junctions)} \tn 
% Row Count 19 (+ 4)
% Row 9
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{goal: to change gene expression (turn on/off genes} \tn 
% Row Count 20 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Structure of DNA}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{double helix} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} "backbone": sugar + phosphate} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} "rungs": nitrogenous bases} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{DNA Replication Image}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\vspace{1px}\centerline{\includegraphics[width=5.1cm]{/web/www.cheatography.com/public/uploads/julescrisfulla_1589775746_dna-replication-machinery-enzymes.png}}} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{DNA Replication Key Factors}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Eukaryotic: replication before mitosis or meiosis (interphase)} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{helicase: unzipping enzyme} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} breaks the hydrogen bonds holding bases together} \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 1)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{DNA polymerase: builder} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 1)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} replicates DNA molecules to build new strand of DNA} \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 2)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{primase: initializer} \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 1)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} makes the primer so that DNA polymerase can figure out where to go to start to work} \tn 
% Row Count 10 (+ 2)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{ligase: gluer (binder)} \tn 
% Row Count 11 (+ 1)
% Row 8
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} helps glue/bind DNA fragments together} \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{DNA Replication Process (2nd example)}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{starts at the origin (identified by DNA sequence)} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{1) helicase unwinds DNA} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} single stranded binding protein bind to DNA strands to prevent the strands from going back together} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 3)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} topoisomerase keeps DNA from supercoiling} \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{2) primase makes RNA primers on both strands} \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 1)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{3) DNA polymerase builds new strand in 5' to 3' direction} \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 2)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} this means it moves along old template strand in 3' to 5' direction} \tn 
% Row Count 11 (+ 2)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} adds new bases to 3' end on new strand} \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 1)
% Row 8
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{4) ligase takes care of gaps between Okazaki fragments} \tn 
% Row Count 14 (+ 2)
% Row 9
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{at the end of replication there is two identical DNA molecules} \tn 
% Row Count 16 (+ 2)
% Row 10
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} semi-conservative: each copy contain a new and original strand} \tn 
% Row Count 18 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Transcription}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{DNA -\textgreater{} RNA} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{1) Initiation} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} promoter sites: region of the DNA where the RNA polymerase binds} \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 2)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{}\textasciitilde{} 100 nucleotides long} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 1)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{}\textasciitilde{} transcription factors: binding protein} \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{}\textasciitilde{} TATA box: promoter sequence} \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 1)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{2) Elongation} \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 1)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} RNA polymerase in action} \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 1)
% Row 8
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{}\textasciitilde{} separates and untwists helix} \tn 
% Row Count 10 (+ 1)
% Row 9
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{}\textasciitilde{} links nucleotides in a 5' to 3' direction} \tn 
% Row Count 11 (+ 1)
% Row 10
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{3) Termination} \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 1)
% Row 11
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} termination sequence: AAUAAA} \tn 
% Row Count 13 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Transcript Modifications}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{5' cap: GTP is added} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{two functions:} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{1) protects transcript from hydrolytic enzymes} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 1)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{2) tags the end as "leader segment" for the ribosome} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 2)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{s' end: last to be translated} \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{poly(A)tail: 30 to 200 nucleotides added to end} \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 1)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} inhibits degradation} \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 1)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} facilitates ribosomal attachment} \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 1)
% Row 8
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} attached to stop codon} \tn 
% Row Count 10 (+ 1)
% Row 9
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{RNA splicing} \tn 
% Row Count 11 (+ 1)
% Row 10
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} removal of introns (noncoding sequences) (intervening sequences)} \tn 
% Row Count 13 (+ 2)
% Row 11
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} pasting of exons (coded sequences) (exit the nucleus)} \tn 
% Row Count 15 (+ 2)
% Row 12
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{small nuclear ribonucleoproteins found in nucleus (snRNP; snurps): complexes of small RNA units and proteins found in nucleus} \tn 
% Row Count 18 (+ 3)
% Row 13
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{spliceosome: complex of snurps involved in the locating and cutting out of introns} \tn 
% Row Count 20 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Codons}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{codons:} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} mRNA triplet that codes for an amino acid} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} start codon: AUG} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 1)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} stop codon: UAA, UAG, UGA} \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 1)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{reading frame:} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 1)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} start to stop sequence of nitrogen bases} \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{anticodons:} \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 1)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} complement of the codon found on tRNA} \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{2.53827 cm} x{2.43873 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Translation}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
Prokaryotic: & Eukaryotic: \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
takes place in cytoplasm & takes place in cytoplasm \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 2)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
ribosomes begin translating while mRNA is still transcribing & transcription and translation separate \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 3)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Redundancy and Ambiguity of the Code}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{redundancy: more than one codon for an amino acid} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{ambiguity: codon do not code for more than one amino acid} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Evolution of the Codes}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{early evolution since shared among living species} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{genes can be transferred within species and among others as well} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Lagging Strand}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{primer is several nucleotides} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{DNA primase goes along the lagging strand and adds RNA primer} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 2)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{once you have primer, polymerase can add on DNA at 3' end (5' to 3')} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 2)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{end up with Okazaki fragments} \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{slower process} \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 1)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{DNA ligase puts all fragments together as one strand} \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 2)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\textasciitilde{} RNA is replaced with DNA} \tn 
% Row Count 10 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Mutations Image}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Image could not be loaded.} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}


% That's all folks
\end{multicols*}

\end{document}