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  /Title (ap-exam-6-2.pdf)
  /Creator (Cheatography)
  /Author (jjovann)
  /Subject (AP Exam 6.2 Cheat Sheet)
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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{AP Exam 6.2 Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{jjovann} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/67730/cs/17431/}}}
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  \mymulticolumn{2}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheatographer}}  \\
  \vspace{-2pt}jjovann \\
  \uline{cheatography.com/jjovann} \\
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Published 12th October, 2018.\\
   Updated 22nd October, 2018.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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  Measure your website readability!\\
  www.readability-score.com
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Bone Formation}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\seqsplit{Ossification(osteogenesis)is} the process of forming new bone.  \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
Bone formation occurs in four situations: \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
–Formation of bone in a late stage embryo \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
–Growth of bones until adulthood \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
–Remodeling of bone \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
–Repair of fractures% Row Count 7 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Bone Formation}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Osteogenesis occurs by two different methods, beginning about the 8thweek of embryonic development. \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Intra-membranous ossification  \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
•Produces spongy bone. \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
•This bone may subsequently be remodeled to form compact bone. \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
–Endochondral ossification  \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
•Process whereby cartilage is replaced by bone. \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
•Forms both compact and spongy bone.% Row Count 9 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Bone Formation}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Intra-membranous ossification is the simpler of the two methods. \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–It is used in formation ofthe flat bones of the skull, mandible, and clavicle. \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
–Bone forms from mesenchymal cells that develop into osteoblasts within a fibrous membrane \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
•Recall that mesenchyme is the tissue from which almost all other C.T. develop. \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
–Many ossification centers. \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
•Centers of bone formation \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
•The bone that is produced does not go through a cartilaginous stage \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
–Woven bone and periosteum form \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 1)
–Lamellar bone replaces woven bone \& red marrow appears% Row Count 15 (+ 2)
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Bone Formation}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Endochondral ossification is the method used in the formation of most bones, especially long bones. \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
–Involves replacement of a hyaline cartilage model by bone. \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
–Begins at the primary ossification center in center of shaft \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
•Blood vessel infiltration of perichondrium converts it to periosteum  \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
–Underlying cells change to osteoblast \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
–Bone collar forms around diaphysis of cartilage model \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
–Central cartilage in diaphysis calcifies, then develops cavities \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 2)
–Periosteal bud invades cavities \newline % Row Count 15 (+ 1)
 •Leads to the formation of spongy bone \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 1)
–Diaphysis elongates \& medullary cavity forms \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 1)
–2ndary ossification centers form in the epiphyses \newline % Row Count 19 (+ 2)
–Epiphyses ossify% Row Count 20 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Control of Bone Growth}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Normal bone growthdepends on several factors: \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Minerals are an essential component \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
•Large amounts of calcium and phosphorus and smaller amounts of magnesium, fluoride, and manganese are required for bone growth and remodeling.% Row Count 5 (+ 3)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Control of Bone Growth}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Hormones are key contributors to normal bone growth. \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–During childhood, the hormones most important to bone growth are human growth hormone (hGH) and growth factors called IGFs (produced by the liver). \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 4)
•Both stimulate osteoblasts, promote cell division at the epiphyseal plate, and enhance protein synthesis. \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 3)
–Thyroid hormone's contribution to bone growth involves the modulation of the activity of growth hormone \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 3)
•Ensures proper bone proportions% Row Count 13 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Control  of Bone Remodeling}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Response to mechanical and gravitational forces \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Bones stressed when bearing weight or pulled on by muscle \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
•Usually stress is off center, so tends to bend bones \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
•Bending compresses on one side; stretches on other \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
–Bones reflect stresses they encounter \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
•Long bones thickest midway along diaphysis where bending stresses greatest% Row Count 11 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Risk Factors for Osteoporosis}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Risk factors \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Most often aged, postmenopausal women \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
•30\% 60 – 70 years of age; 70\% by age 80 \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
•30\% of caucasian women will fracture bone because of it \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
–Men to lesser degree% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Aging and Bone Tissue}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•There are two principal effects of aging on bone tissue: \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Loss of bone mass \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
•The loss of calcium from bones is one of the symptoms in osteoporosis. \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
–Brittleness \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
•Collagen fibers give bone its tensile strength, and protein synthesis decreases with age. \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
•The loss of tensile strength causes the bones to become very brittle and susceptible to fracture.% Row Count 10 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Fracture and Repair}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Within one week new trabeculae appear in fibrocartilaginous callus \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Callus converted to bony (hard) callus of spongy bone \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
•\textasciitilde{}2 months later firm union forms% Row Count 5 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Fracture Treatment}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Treatment \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Reduction \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
•Realignment of broken bone ends \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
•Closed reduction – physician manipulates to correct position \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
•Open reduction – surgical pins, plates, or wires secure ends \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
–Immobilization by cast or traction for healing \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
•Depends on break severity, bone broken, and age of patient% Row Count 10 (+ 2)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Fractures}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Fractures \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Breaks in the bone tissue•Fractures in youth \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
–Most result from trauma»Hold my beer! \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
•Fractures in old age \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
–Most result of bone weakness due to thinning \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
»Hold my walker!% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Control of Bone Remodeling}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Negative feedback hormonal loop for Ca2+homeostasis \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Maintaining a normal serum Ca2+ level takes precedence over mineralizing bone \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
•Parathyroid hormone (PTH) \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
–Produced by parathyroid glands \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
–Removes calcium from bone regardless of bone integrity \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
•Calcitonin may be involved–Produced by parafollicular cells of thyroid gland \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 2)
–In humans, high doses lowers blood calcium levels temporarily \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 2)
»Normal human physiological serum levels not high enough to cause the above effect% Row Count 14 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Postnatal Bone Growth}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{After initial bone formation, bones grow by via two methods \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Interstitial (longitudinal) growth•Increase in length of long bones \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
–Appositional growth  \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
•Increase in bone thickness% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Interstitial Growth}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Requires presence of epiphyseal cartilage \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
Epiphyseal growth plate maintains constant thickness \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 2)
–Rate of cartilage growth on one side balanced by bone replacement on other \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
•Concurrent remodeling of epiphyseal ends to maintain proportion \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
•Result of five zones within cartilage \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
–Resting (quiescent) zone \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
–Proliferation (growth) zone \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
–Hypertrophic zone \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
–Calcification zone \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 1)
–Ossification (osteogenic) zone% Row Count 13 (+ 1)
} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Interstitial Growth}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Resting (quiescent) zone \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Cartilage on epiphyseal side of epiphyseal plate \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 2)
–Relatively inactive \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
•Proliferation (growth) zone \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
–Cartilage on diaphysis side of epiphyseal plate \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
–Rapidly divide pushing epiphysis away from diaphysis \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
lengthening \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
•Hypertrophic zone–Older chondrocytes closer to diaphysis and their lacunae enlarge and erode interconnecting spaces \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 3)
•Calcification zone \newline % Row Count 14 (+ 1)
–Surrounding cartilage matrix calcifies, chondrocytes die and deteriorate \newline % Row Count 16 (+ 2)
•Ossification zone \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 1)
–Chondrocyte deterioration leaves long spicules of calcified cartilage at epiphysis-diaphysis junction \newline % Row Count 20 (+ 3)
–Spicules eroded by osteoclasts  \newline % Row Count 21 (+ 1)
–Covered with new bone by osteoblasts \newline % Row Count 22 (+ 1)
– Ultimately replaced with spongy bone% Row Count 23 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Control Of Bone Growth}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Vitamins are necessary for normal bone growth: \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Vitamin A is important for theactivity of osteoblasts \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 2)
–Vitamin C is needed for synthesis of collagen. \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
–Vitamin D is essential to healthy bones because it promotes the absorption of calcium from foods in the gastrointestinal tract into the blood. \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 3)
–Vitamins K and B12 are needed for synthesis of bone proteins.% Row Count 9 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Control of Bone Growth}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Hormones continued... \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–The sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) cause a dramatic effect on bone growth, such as the sudden "growth spurt" that occurs during adolescence. \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 4)
•The female sex hormones also promote widening of the pelvis in the female skeleton. \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
•Sex hormones are responsible for closing the epiphyseal plates at the end of puberty. \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
•Also important in bone density maintenance during adulthood% Row Count 11 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Additional Risk Factors for Osteoporosis}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Petite body form \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
•Insufficient exercise to stress bones \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
•Diet poor in calcium and protein \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
•Smoking \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
•Other hormone-related conditions \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
–Hyperthyroidism \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
–Low blood levels of thyroid \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
-stimulating hormone \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
–Diabetes mellitus \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
–Low hGH and IGF produuction \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
•Immobility \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
•Males with prostate cancer taking androgen-suppressing drugs% Row Count 13 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Aging and Bone Tissue}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•As we age, a decrease in bone mass occurs as the level of sex hormones diminish (especially in women after menopause) \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
–Human females undergo a drop in estrogen levels typically many years before testosterone decreases in men \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 3)
•Women can lose as much as 15-35\% of their bone mass in the first five years after menopause \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
–Since human female bones are generally smaller and less dense than males to begin with, old age has a greater adverse effect in females. \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 3)
–Bone resorption by osteoclasts outpaces bone deposition by osteoblasts with low levels of sex steroids.% Row Count 14 (+ 3)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Fracture and Repair}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•The final step takes several months and is called remodeling : \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Spongy bone is replaced by compact bone. \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
–The fracture line disappears andlittle to no evidence of the breakremainsonce complete \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
•Final structure resembles original because bone subject to same mechanical stressors% Row Count 7 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Fracture and Repair}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Once a bone is fractured, repair proceeds in apredictable pattern: \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
•The first stepis the formation of a fracture hematoma (clot) as a result of blood vessels breaking in the periosteum and in osteons. \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 3)
•Site swollen, painful, and inflamed% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Fracture Classification}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Three "either/or" fracture classifications \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Position of bone ends after fracture \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
•Nondisplaced—ends retain normal position \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
•Displaced—ends out of normal alignment \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
–Completeness of break \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
•Complete—broken all the way through \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 1)
•Incomplete—not broken all the way through \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
–Whether skin is penetrated \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
•Open (compound) - skin is penetrated \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
•Closed (simple) – skin is not penetrated% Row Count 10 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Results of Mechanical Stressors:Wolff's Law}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Bone grows or remodels in response to demands placed on it \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
•Explains \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
–Handedness (right or left handed) results in thicker and stronger bone of that upper limb \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
–Curved bones thickest where most likely to buckle \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
–Trabeculae of spongy bone form trusses along lines of stress \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
–Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 2)
•Even more pronounced on professional weight lifters \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 2)
–Bones of fetus and bedridden featureless% Row Count 14 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Control of Bone Remodeling}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•The process of regulating serum Ca2+ levels by mineralizing bone is under hormonal control, and is carefully balanced \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
•Day to day control of calcium regulation mainly involves: \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
–PTH stimulates osteoclastic activity and raises blood serum calcium level. Stimulates reabsorption of calcium ions in the kidneys \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 3)
–To a small extent, calcitonin – maybe –, hGH, and the sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) stimulate osteoblastic activity and lower serum calcium level. \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 4)
–Vitamin D is produced for absorption of the Ca2+ and PO4–  ions from the small intestine.% Row Count 14 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Interstitial Growth}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Ossification contributing to bone length (Interstitial growth) occurs throughout childhood and adolescence \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
–Near end of adolescence chondroblasts divide less often \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
–Epiphyseal plate thins then is replaced by bone \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
•Epiphyseal plate closure \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
•Bone lengthening ceases \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
•Bone of epiphysis and diaphysis fuses \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
•Usually complete by 18-21 years of age. \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
–18 in females \newline % Row Count 12 (+ 1)
–21 in males \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 1)
•Fractures (breaks) to the epiphyseal growth plate can accelerate it's closure. –The fractured bone may be shorter than normal when adulthood is reached \newline % Row Count 17 (+ 4)
–Inhibits length-wise growth of bone% Row Count 18 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Appositional Growth}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Allows lengthening bone to widen \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
•Occurs throughout life•Majority of osteoblast contribution to appositional growth occurs in the periosteum \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 3)
–secretes bone matrix on external bone \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
•Majority of osteoclasts contribution to appositional growth occurs in the endosteum \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
–removes bone on endosteal surface \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
•Usually more building up than breaking down(Thicker, stronger bone but not too heavy)% Row Count 10 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Bone Growth and Remodeling}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{A balance must exist between the actions of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–If too much new osseous tissue is formed, the bones become abnormally thick and heavy, as seen with acromegaly. \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 3)
–Excessive loss of calcium weakens the bones, as occurs in osteoporosis. \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
–Bonesmay also become too "soft", as seen in the bone diseases rickets (children)and osteomalacia(adults).% Row Count 10 (+ 3)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Vitamin D and Calcium Deficiency}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Can happen in places with low sun exposure or low calcium content in diet \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
-Rickets•Weakening of bone hardness due to insufficient absorption of dietary calcium from lack of vitamin D or prolonged diets deficient in calcium \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 4)
•More common in children than adults \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
-Called osteomalacia in adults \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 1)
•Increase in dietary Vitamin D or Ca intake can be used to treat% Row Count 10 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Classification of Bone Fractures}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Also described by location of fracture \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
•External appearance \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
•Nature of break \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
•Eponym (someone's name)% Row Count 4 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Results of Hormonal and Mechanical Influences}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Hormonal controls determine whether and when remodeling occurs in response to changing blood calcium levels \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
\seqsplit{•Mechanical/gravitational} stress determines where remodeling occurs% Row Count 5 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Fracture and Repair}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•The second step involvesthe formation of a callus  \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Capillaries grow into hematoma–Phagocytic cells clear debris \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
–Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to span break and connect broken ends \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
–Fibroblasts, chondroblasts, and osteogenic cells begin reconstruction of bone \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
–Create cartilage matrix of repair tissue \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 1)
–Osteoblasts form spongy bone within matrix•Mass of repair tissue called fibrocartilaginous callus% Row Count 12 (+ 3)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Exercise and Bone Tissue}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Under mechanical stress, bone tissue becomes stronger through production of collagen fibers by osteoblasts and subsequent deposition of mineral salts. •Unstressed bones, on the other hand, become weaker. \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 5)
–Astronauts in orbit suffer rapid loss of bone density. \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
•As much a 1\% a week% Row Count 8 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Negative Feedback Hormonal Loop for blood Ca2+}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Calcium is controlled by the parathyroid hormone (PTH) \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
Decreases Calcium2+ blood levels \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
Increase PTH release \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 1)
PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix, releasing Ca2+  \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
Blood Calcium2+ levels increase  \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
PTH release amount is decreased% Row Count 8 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Aging and Bone Tissue}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Osteoporosis refers to a group of diseases where bone resorption outpaces bone deposition. \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Depletion of calcium from the body or inadequate intake in young adults \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
–Sex hormones maintain normal bone health and density \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 2)
•As secretion wanes with age, osteoporosis can develop \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 2)
–Spongy bone of spinal column and neck of femur most susceptible \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 2)
•Heavy weight-bearing responsibilities \newline % Row Count 11 (+ 1)
•Vertebral and hip fractures common% Row Count 12 (+ 1)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Control of Bone Remodeling}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Occurs continuously but regulated by genetic factors and two control loops \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 2)
–Negative feedback hormonal loop for Ca2+homeostasis \newline % Row Count 4 (+ 2)
•Controls blood Ca2+ levels, not bone integrity \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 1)
•Serum Ca2+ concentrations are very important for proper nervous and muscle function \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 2)
•Even minute changes in blood calcium are dangerous \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
–Responses to mechanical and gravitational forces% Row Count 11 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Preventing Osteoporosis}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Plenty of calcium in diet in early adulthood \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Can help to increase bone deposition \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
•Reduce carbonated cola consumption \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
–May lower serum Ca levels causing an increase in the release of minerals from bone thus decreasing bone density \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 3)
•Reduce alcohol consumption \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
–Heavy drinking during adolescence and young adulthood may have permanent effects on bone density \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
•Plenty of weight-bearing exercise \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
–Increases bone mass above normal for buffer against age-related bone loss% Row Count 12 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Preventing Osteoporosis}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Plenty of calcium in diet in early adulthood \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Can help to increase bone deposition \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
•Reduce carbonated cola consumption \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
–May lower serum Ca levels causing an increase in the release of minerals from bone thus decreasing bone density \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 3)
•Reduce alcohol consumption \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
–Heavy drinking during adolescence and young adulthood may have permanent effects on bone density \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
•Plenty of weight-bearing exercise \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
–Increases bone mass above normal for buffer against age-related bone loss% Row Count 12 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Preventing Osteoporosis}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{•Plenty of calcium in diet in early adulthood \newline % Row Count 1 (+ 1)
–Can help to increase bone deposition \newline % Row Count 2 (+ 1)
•Reduce carbonated cola consumption \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 1)
–May lower serum Ca levels causing an increase in the release of minerals from bone thus decreasing bone density \newline % Row Count 6 (+ 3)
•Reduce alcohol consumption \newline % Row Count 7 (+ 1)
–Heavy drinking during adolescence and young adulthood may have permanent effects on bone density \newline % Row Count 9 (+ 2)
•Plenty of weight-bearing exercise \newline % Row Count 10 (+ 1)
–Increases bone mass above normal for buffer against age-related bone loss% Row Count 12 (+ 2)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}


% That's all folks
\end{multicols*}

\end{document}