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  /Subject (Life Span Development Pyschology Chapters 6-9 Cheat Sheet)
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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{Life Span Development Pyschology Chapters 6-9 Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
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   \vspace{-2pt}Published 9th March, 2023.\\
   Updated 9th March, 2023.\\
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{17.67cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chapter 6}}  \tn
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Jean Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development: Processes & Schemes:Child's knowledge, representations, and ways of interacting with the world. Emphasized independent thinking \tn 
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Adaptation & Adaptation: Relates schemes \& experiences in the world Assimilation interprets new experience in terms of existing schemes. Accommodation alters schemes in response to new experiences. Equilibration assimilation \& accommodation working together to enrich the child's worldview. \tn 
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Stages: Period 1: Sensorimotor Intelligence (Birth-2yrs \& consist of six stages) & Reflexes (1 month) Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 months) Infants coordinate two body actions. Baby chances upon a new experience \& tries to repeat its "construction process" Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 months) Baby discovers \& reproduces an interesting event outside themselves The Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8 to 12 months) Learning to coordinate two different schemes to get a result Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) infant experiments with different actions \& observes the outcome The Beginnings of Thought (18mo – 2 years) Children think out situations more internally before they act, marked by deferred imitation \tn 
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Period 2: Pre-operational Thought (2-7 years) S & Symbolic \seqsplit{function/Representational} insight The Prefrontal Cortex Social Thinking, Animism Assuming that all things that move are alive and have human characteristics, Reification Believing that people \& objects in stories and dreams are real, Egocentrism collective monologues,failing to realize that others can't see one's dreams, not considering another's viewpoint Lack of conservation is a sign of this stage \tn 
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Period 3: Concrete Operations (7-11 Years) & Cognitive operations Internal mental activity to modify symbols to reach a logical conclusion. Marked by mastery of conservation (by recognizing the contradictions in their own thought) master conservation and classification tasks \tn 
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Period 4: Formal Operation (12+) & \seqsplit{Hypothetic-deductive} reasoning ability to generate hypotheses and use deductive reasoning (general to specific) Inductive Reasoning going from specific observations to generalizations \tn 
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Evaluating Piaget's theory: & Piaget's theory has some shortcomings, including overestimating the ability of adolescence and underestimating the infant's capacity. Piaget also neglected cultural and social interaction factors in the development of children's cognition and thinking ability. \tn 
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Vygotsky's theory of Cognitive development:Zone of proximal development (upper and lower limits) & The distance between what a learner is capable of doing unsupported, and what they can only do is supported (assesses child's potential for new learning) The zone has a lower limit: things that are difficult but possible for a child to learn alone, and an upper limit: things that a child cannot yet learn, even with assistance from an adult. \tn 
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Evaluation Piaget's theory: & Piaget suggested the teacher's role involved providing appropriate learning experiences and materials that stimulate students to advance their thinking. His theory has influenced concepts of individual and student-centered learning, formative assessment, active learning, discovery learning, and peer interaction \tn 
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Scaffolding & Scaffolding is an instructional method in which teachers demonstrate the process of problem-solving for their students and explain the steps as they go along. After a few initial explanations, the instructor will then remove themselves from the students and only offer help when needed. Scaffolding gradually removes assistance to the child \tn 
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Language and thoughts & Vygotsky analyzes the relationship between words and consciousness, arguing that speech is social in its origins and that only as children develop does it become internalized verbal thought.  Thought changes fundamentally once we are able to think in words \tn 
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Inner speech & Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech—it is a function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e., thought connected with words. In inner speech, words die as they bring forth thought. \tn 
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Evaluation of Vygotsky's theory & Rogoff (1990) dismisses the idea that Vygotsky's ideas are culturally universal and instead states the concept of scaffolding – which is heavily dependent on verbal instruction – may not be equally useful in all cultures for all types of learning. \tn 
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Cognitive change in adulthooda. Piaget's view & Piaget believed that people of all ages developed intellectually. But he also believed that once a person reaches the formal operational stage, it's more about building upon knowledge, not changing how it's acquired or understood. \tn 
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Postformal thought & ostformal thought is a stage of development that occurs in early adulthood in which a person gains the ability to synthesize opposing ideas or feelings into a more complete understanding. In post formal thought, a person understands that there are contradictions that exist in the world.Jul \tn 
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