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  /Title (ap-psychology-unit-1-11.pdf)
  /Creator (Cheatography)
  /Author (clclacl)
  /Subject (ap psychology unit 1 - 11 Cheat Sheet)
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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{ap psychology unit 1 - 11 Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Not Yet Published.\\
   Updated 3rd March, 2023.\\
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 1 - Careers in Psychology}}}}  \tn
% Row 0
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Francis Bacon}} = one of founders of modern science; ideas later added by Locke to form modern {\emph{empiricism}} (knowledge is from experience, science rely on observation and experimentation)} \tn 
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% Row 1
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{John Locke}} (cognitive) = mind is a blank state (Aristotle's {\emph{tabula rasa}}); {\emph{empiricism}} (knowledge acquired by careful observation)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Edward Titchner}} = {\emph{structuralism}} (study human mind via introspections); {\emph{introspection}} (looking inward)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Margaret Washburn}} = first woman to receive psych Ph.D.; synthesized animal behavior research in "The Animal Mind"; couldn't join {\emph{experimental psychologists}} (study of behavior and thinking using experiment)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Sigmund Freud}} = {\emph{Freudian psychology}} (emphasized ways our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior); psychodynamic approach} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Unit 4 - Parts of Eye and Ear}}  \tn
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{\bf{Parts of Eye:}} & {\bf{Parts of Ear:}} \tn 
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pupil = adjustable opening in center of eye through which light enters & outer ear = eardrum (a tight membrane that vibrates) \tn 
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iris = ring of muscle tissue that forms colored part of eye around pupil and controls size of pupil opening & middle ear = chamber btwn eardrum and cochlea containing3 tiny bones ({\emph{hammer, anvil, stirrup}}) that concentrate vibrations of eardrum on cochlea's oval window \tn 
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lens = transparent structure behind pupil that changes shape to help focus images on retina & cochlea = coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in inner ear; sound waves traveling through cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses \tn 
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retina = light-sensitive inner surface of eye, containing receptor rods \& cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual info & inner ear = contains cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs \tn 
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accommodation = eye's lens changes shape to focus near/far objects on the retina & pitch = a tone's experienced highness/lowness; depends on frequency \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Unit 4 - Parts of Eye and Ear (cont)}}  \tn
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{\bf{the retina:}} & frequency = number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time \tn 
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rods = retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray ({\emph{shade}}) & {\bf{place theory}} = links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated \tn 
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cones = retinal receptor cells that function in daylight, detecting fine detail and {\emph{color}} & {\bf{frequency theory}} = the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches frequency of a tone, allowing us to sense its pitch \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{optic nerve = the nerve that carries neural impulses from eye to brain} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{blind spot = point the optic nerve leaves the eye where no receptor cells are located there} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{fovea = central focal point in retina around where cones cluster} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{consciousness}} = our awareness of ourselves and our environment} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{circadian rhythm}} = biological clock; regular bodily rhythms} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{REM}} = rapid eye movement; recurring sleep stage which vivid {\emph{dreams}} occur; muscle relax but other body systems are active (paradoxical sleep)} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{alpha wave}} = relatively slow brain waves; relaxed, but awake state} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{delta wave}} = large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{NREM sleep}} = (non-rapid eye movement); encompasses all sleep stages except REM; {\emph{deep sleep}}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Sleep Stages}} = every 90 mins, 8 full cycles; leaving alpha waves to irregular brain waves of non-REM stage 1-\textgreater{} NREM 1; NREM2 spend most time here (20mins), sleep spindles; NREM3} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 7 - Memories}}}}  \tn
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{\bf{memory}} & the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of info \tn 
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{\bf{encoding}} & the processing of info to the memory system \tn 
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{\bf{mnemonics}} & memory aids; techniques that use vivid imagery/organizational devices \tn 
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{\bf{the spacing effect}} & the tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study/practice \tn 
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{\bf{belief perseverance}} & to continue believing in something even though there was evidence that supports its contradiction \tn 
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{\bf{morphemes}} & in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning (may be a word or a part of a word) \tn 
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{\bf{syntax}} & the ordering of words when making a sentence \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 9 - Developmental Psychology}}}}  \tn
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{\bf{3 issues of developmental psychologists}} & nature and nurture, continuity and stages, stability and change \tn 
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{\bf{Kohlberg}} & moral reasoning; preconventional (self interest), conventional (uphold laws and social), postconventional (ethics) \tn 
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{\bf{Erik Erikson}} & psychosocial; basic trust, autonomy, initiative, competence, identity, intimacy, generativity, integrity \tn 
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{\bf{Piaget}} & cognitive; sensorimotor (0-2 yrs, object), preoperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11), formal operational (12-) \tn 
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{\bf{prenatal development}} & zygote (fertilized egg) -\textgreater{} embryo (developing human organism) -\textgreater{} fetus \tn 
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{\bf{Harlow}} & known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys, which manifested the importance of caregiving and companionship to social and cognitive development \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 9 - Developmental Psychology}} (cont)}}  \tn
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{\bf{critical period}} & an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli/experiences produces normal development \tn 
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{\bf{transgender}} & an umbrella term describing ppl whose gender identity/expression differs from that associated with their birth sex \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 2 - Research Methods}}}}  \tn
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{\bf{hindsight bias}} & {\emph{i-knew-it-all-along}} phenomenon \tn 
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{\bf{mean}} & the arithmetic avg of a distribution by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores \tn 
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{\bf{mode}} & the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution \tn 
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{\bf{median}} & the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it \tn 
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{\bf{range}} & the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution \tn 
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{\bf{standard deviation}} & computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score \tn 
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{\bf{phrenology (Franz Gall)}} & studying bumps on skull could reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 4 - Sensation \& Perception}}}}  \tn
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{\bf{top-down processing}} & info processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience \& expectations \tn 
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{\bf{bottom-up processing}} & analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and work up to the brain's integration of sensory information \tn 
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{\bf{sensation}} & process which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment \tn 
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{\bf{perception}} & process of organizing and interpreting sensory info, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects/events \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 5- Sleep Disorders}}}}  \tn
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insomnia & recurring problems in falling/staying asleep \tn 
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\seqsplit{narcolepsy} & uncontrollable sleep attacks, lapse directly to REM \tn 
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sleep apnea & temporary stop breathing during sleep and waking up \tn 
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night terrors & high arousal \& appearance of being terrified; occur during NREM3 within 2-3 hrs of sleep \tn 
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\seqsplit{somnambulism} & sleepwalking, sleep talking/eating/driving \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 6 - Learning}}}}  \tn
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{\bf{learning}} & process of acquiring new and relatively enduring info or behaviors \tn 
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{\bf{classic conditioning}} & associating two stimuli and anticipate events \tn 
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{\bf{operant conditioning}} & associating a response with a consequence \tn 
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{\bf{reinforcement schedule}} & a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced \tn 
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{\bf{law of effect}} & (Thorndike) the idea that responses that led to positive effects are repeated and vice versa \tn 
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{\bf{Skinner box}} & in operant conditioning research containing a bar/key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food/water reinforcer; attached devices record animal's rate of bar pressing/key pecking \tn 
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{\bf{learned helplessness}} & the hopelessness and passive resignation one learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events \tn 
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{\bf{external locus of control}} & the perception that chance/outside forces beyond our personal control determines our fate \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 10 - Personality}}}}  \tn
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{\bf{personality}} & an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting \tn 
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{\bf{repression}} & in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories \tn 
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{\bf{Big Five}} & Costa \& McCrae; CANOE: {\emph{C}}onscientiousness, {\emph{A}}greeableness, {\emph{N}}euroticism (emotional stability vs instability), {\emph{O}}penness, {\emph{E}}xtraversion \tn 
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{\bf{Maslow's self-actualization}} & one of ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical \& psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential -\textgreater{}self transendence \tn 
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{\bf{social-cognitive perspective}} & Bandura; views behavior as influenced by interaction btwn people's traits (and their thinking) and their social context; Bobo Doll experiment \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 3 - Biological Psychology}}}}  \tn
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{\bf{cerebral cortex}} & fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center; contain the lobes \tn 
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{\bf{frontal lobes}} & involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments \tn 
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{\bf{parietal lobes}} & receives sensory input for touch and body position \tn 
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{\bf{occipital lobes}} & receive information from visual fields \tn 
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{\bf{temporal lobes}} & auditory areas, each receiving info primarily from opposite ear \tn 
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{\bf{right brain hemisphere}} & {\emph{perceptual}} task; groups in categories like pen pencil book is school, make speech mean clear, help orchestrate our sense of self \tn 
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{\bf{left brain hemisphere}} & when the person speaks or calculates; make quick, literal interpretations of language \tn 
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{\bf{hippocampus}} & processes conscious {\emph{memories}} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 3 - Biological Psychology}} (cont)}}  \tn
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{\bf{cerebellum}} & processes sensory input, coordinating mvmnt and balance, \& enabling nonverbal learning/memory \tn 
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{\bf{hypothalamus}} & desires (urges, impulses), food, thirst, sex \tn 
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\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Brain Structure Image}}}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\vspace{1px}\centerline{\includegraphics[width=5.1cm]{/web/www.cheatography.com/public/uploads/clclacl_1677740775_ap psych brain.jpg}}} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\emph{*Unit 4 - Theories and Others}}}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Eye Vision:}}} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Young-Helmholtz Trichomatic (three-color) Theory}} = retina contains three diff color receptors: red, green, blue; which, when stimulated can produce perception of any color} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 4)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{opponent-process theory}} = opposing retinal processes (r-g, y-b, w-b) enable color vision. I.e. some cells stimulated by green, inhibited by red} \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 3)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{gestalt}} = an organized whole; emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of info to meaningful wholes} \tn 
% Row Count 11 (+ 3)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{parallel processing}} = doing many things at once} \tn 
% Row Count 13 (+ 2)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{Other Senses:}}} \tn 
% Row Count 14 (+ 1)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{gate-control theory}} = accepting or denying pain to the brain} \tn 
% Row Count 16 (+ 2)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{{\bf{McGurk Effect}} = sensory integration = senses not lined up \& seems off (ex. some hear may, some hear bay)} \tn 
% Row Count 19 (+ 3)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.24425 cm} x{3.73275 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 5 - Addiction}}}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\seqsplit{depressants} & alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), opiates; calm neural activity and slow body functions \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 4)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\seqsplit{stimulants} & caffeine, nic, amohetamines, cocaine, ectasy, methamphetamine; excite neural activity and speed up body functions \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 4)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\seqsplit{hallucinogens} & psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs like LSD; distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in absence of sensory input \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 4)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.54287 cm} x{3.43413 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 8 - Motivation, Emotion, Stress}}}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{motivation}} & a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\bf{James-Lange}} & physical 1st, emotion 2nd; we observe our heart racing after a threat and {\emph{then}} feel afraid \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 4)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{two-factor}} & Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion, one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal (heart began pounding as i experience fear) \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 6)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
{\bf{set-point}} & the point at which an individual's weight thermostat is set \tn 
% Row Count 15 (+ 3)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{orexin}} & hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus \tn 
% Row Count 17 (+ 2)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
{\bf{ostracism}} & an extreme form of rejection in which one is excluded and ignored in the presence of others \tn 
% Row Count 21 (+ 4)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{emotion}} & a response of the whole organism involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience \tn 
% Row Count 26 (+ 5)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
{\bf{polygraph}} & machine commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several physiological responses accompanying emotion \tn 
% Row Count 31 (+ 5)
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\vfill
\columnbreak
\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.54287 cm} x{3.43413 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 8 - Motivation, Emotion, Stress}} (cont)}}  \tn
% Row 8
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{Abraham Maslow}} & hierarchy of needs; bottom to top: physiological, safety, belonginess/love, esteem, self-actualization, self-transendence \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 5)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.44333 cm} x{3.53367 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{{\bf{Unit 11 - Intelligence}}}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{intelligence}} & mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 5)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\bf{Spearman}} & {\emph{general intelligence (g)}} factor that underlies specific mental abilities \& therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test; {\emph{factor analysis}} used to identify diff dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score \tn 
% Row Count 14 (+ 9)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{Gardner}} & 8 mult intelligences: naturalist, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthic, intrapersonal, interpersonal \tn 
% Row Count 19 (+ 5)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
{\bf{Sternberg}} & 3 intelligences: analytical, creative, practical \tn 
% Row Count 21 (+ 2)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{Binet}} & {\emph{mental age}}: chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance \tn 
% Row Count 25 (+ 4)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}


% That's all folks
\end{multicols*}

\end{document}