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\author{Cassie.q11}
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  /Title (bio-ii-exam-1-chapters-20-21-25-26-30.pdf)
  /Creator (Cheatography)
  /Author (Cassie.q11)
  /Subject (BIO II EXAM 1: Chapters 20,21,25,26,30 Cheat Sheet)
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    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{BIO II EXAM 1: Chapters 20,21,25,26,30 Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{Cassie.q11} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/217228/cs/47657/}}}
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  \vspace{-2pt}Cassie.q11 \\
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Not Yet Published.\\
   Updated 6th February, 2026.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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  Measure your website readability!\\
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Phylogenies \& History of Life}}  \tn
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PHYLOGENY: hypothesis abt evolutionary relationships, built as trees & Molecular Clocks: estimates the absolute time iof evolutionary change based on mutation rates and fossils (limited bc mut. rates vary) \tn 
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NOTE: Show patterns of desent NOT levels of advancement and similarity does not always mean close relatedness & Fossil Record: shows macroevolutionary changes in history of life and reveals extint species, transitional forms, and timing of major events \tn 
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Tree Parts: Root, Node, Branch, Sister taxa & Origin of Life: earth started with little oxygen but lots of water vapor \tn 
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Sister Taxa: two linages that share a more recent common ancestor & processes could make simple cells in 4 stages (hypotheses) \tn 
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Basal taxon: branch diverges out from all other ones & 1) RNA (RNA as genetic material and a catalyst) \tn 
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Monophyletic (Clade): ancestor + all decendants & 2) Synthesis of macromolecules \tn 
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Paraphyletic: ancestor + some decendants & 3) Protocells (with lipid membranes) \tn 
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Polyphyletic: distantly related without common ancestor & 4) Abiotic Synthesis \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{Homology: similar by shared ancestry} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{Orthologous Genes: speciation, different species} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{Paralogous Genes: gene duplication, within species} \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Viruses \& Vaccines}}  \tn
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Viruses: acellular infectious agents that exist between living and nonliving & Viruses Classified By: type of nucleuic acid, single vs double stranded, RNA sense (+ or -), presence of envelope \tn 
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WE DON'T KNOW IF THEY ARE ALIVE & Retroviruses: single stranded RNA genome that uses reverse transcription to copy its genome into DNA called PROVIRUS \tn 
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WHY NOT LIVING: cannot keep homeostatsis, cannot reproduce without host, does not grow or respond to stimuli on own & Lysogenic: dormancy without destruction \tn 
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Genome: DNA or RNA (not both) & Lytic: immediate destruction \tn 
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Capsid: protein coat that protects genome, built from capsomeres & Capsid Shapes: icosahedrak (sphere), helical (rod), complex (bacteriophages) \tn 
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Envelope (optional): lipid bilayer from host cell membrane, viral glycoproteins & Bacteriophages: infect bacteria, elgonated head with DNA and protein tail, best understood of viruses \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{How vaccines work: mimics the process of antigen exposure in a safe way. antigen presenting cells take up antigens amd present immune cells, T \& B cells respond}  \tn 
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Plant Form \& Physiology  Plant Organs •	Roots: anchor, absorb water/minerals, storage •	Stems: support, transport •	Leaves: photosynthesis Tissue Types •	Dermal: protection (epidermis, cuticle) •	Ground: photosynthesis, storage, support o	Parenchyma (metabolism) o	Collenchyma (flexible support) o	Sclerenchyma (rigid, lignin) •	Vascular: o	Xylem → water/minerals (dead cells) o	Phloem → sugars (living cells) Transport •	Transpiration: water loss through stomata •	Cohesion-tension theory: pulls water upward in xylem •	Pressure-flow hypothesis: sugars move source → sink in phloem Stomata •	Controlled by guard cells •	Open for gas exchange, close to prevent water loss Plant Hormones •	Auxin: elongation, phototropism •	Gibberellin: growth, germination •	Cytokinin: cell division, delays aging •	Ethylene: fruit ripening •	ABA: dormancy, stress response  Seedless Plants  General Traits •	No seeds or pollen •	Reproduce by spores •	Require water for fertilization •	Alternation of generations Bryophytes (Nonvascular) •	Mosses, liverworts •	No true roots/stems/leaves •	Gametophyte-dominant •	Small, moist habitats Seedless Vascular Plants •	Ferns, horsetails •	Have xylem \& phloem •	Sporophyte-dominant •	Larger size Life Cycle •	Sporophyte (2n) → spores •	Gametophyte (n) → gametes •	Fertilization → zygote → sporophyte  Seed Plants  Key Innovations •	Seeds: protect embryo + food supply •	Pollen: reproduction without water •	Reduced gametophyte •	Dominant sporophyte Gymnosperms •	Naked seeds (cones) •	Wind pollination •	Conifers, cycads Angiosperms •	Flowering plants •	Seeds enclosed in fruit •	Double fertilization o	Zygote + endosperm Flower Parts •	Sepals: protect •	Petals: attract pollinators •	Stamen: male •	Carpel/Pistil: female Monocots vs Eudicots •	Monocots: 1 cotyledon, parallel veins, flower parts in 3s •	Eudicots: 2 cotyledons, net veins, flower parts in 4s/5s} \tn 
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% That's all folks
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