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% Document Info
\author{Anais (Anais\_Pe)}
\pdfinfo{
  /Title (biology-a-level-genetics-of-living-systems.pdf)
  /Creator (Cheatography)
  /Author (Anais (Anais\_Pe))
  /Subject (Biology A level - Genetics of Living Systems Cheat Sheet)
}

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    {\parbox{\dimexpr\textwidth-2\fboxsep\relax}{\noindent
        \hspace*{-6pt}\includegraphics[width=5.8cm]{/web/www.cheatography.com/public/images/cheatography_logo.pdf}}
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\begin{tabulary}{11cm}{L}
    \vspace{-2pt}\large{\bf{\textcolor{DarkBackground}{\textrm{Biology A level - Genetics of Living Systems Cheat Sheet}}}} \\
    \normalsize{by \textcolor{DarkBackground}{Anais (Anais\_Pe)} via \textcolor{DarkBackground}{\uline{cheatography.com/151793/cs/43580/}}}
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\begin{multicols}{3}
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  \mymulticolumn{2}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheatographer}}  \\
  \vspace{-2pt}Anais (Anais\_Pe) \\
  \uline{cheatography.com/anais-pe} \\
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  \mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Cheat Sheet}}  \\
   \vspace{-2pt}Published 5th June, 2024.\\
   Updated 5th June, 2024.\\
   Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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  Measure your website readability!\\
  www.readability-score.com
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\begin{document}
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\begin{multicols*}{3}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{2.18988 cm} x{2.78712 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Gene mutations}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{Substitution / point mutation}} & {\bf{One base switches place with another.}} This does not always lead to a change because DNA code is degenerate. (A change in the third base is the least likely to lead to change.) \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 9)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{Deletion}} & {\bf{Base deleted.}} Results in frame shift - every codon after deletion is changed, so big change in protein synthesis. \tn 
% Row Count 15 (+ 6)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{Insertion}} & {\bf{Base inserted.}} Leads to a frame shift. \tn 
% Row Count 17 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.09848 cm} x{1.3731 cm} x{2.10542 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{3}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Mutagens}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{Physical mutagens}} & {\emph{e.g. ionising radiations}} & Break one/both DNA strands, mutations can occur in the process. \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 4)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\bf{Chemical mutagens}} & {\emph{e.g. deaminating agents}} & Chemically alter based in DNA (e.g. cytosine to uracil). \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 4)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\bf{Biological agents}} & {\emph{e.g. alkylating agents}} & Methyl/ethyl group added to base -{}-\textgreater{} incorrect pairing. \tn 
% Row Count 12 (+ 4)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
 & {\emph{e.g. base analogs}} & Incorporate in DNA in place of usual base. \tn 
% Row Count 15 (+ 3)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
 & {\emph{e.g. viruses}} & Viral DNA inserted in genome. \tn 
% Row Count 17 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}---}
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{3}{x{5.377cm}}{Mutagens are factors that increase the rate of mutations.}  \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}---}
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.34379 cm} x{3.63321 cm} }
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chromosome mutations}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{Deletion}} & Sections of chromosomes break off. \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{Duplication}} & Section gets duplicated. \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 2)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{Translocation}} & One section of a chromosome breaks off and joins to non-homologous chromosome. \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 3)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{Inversion}} & Section breaks off, reverses and joins back on. \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
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\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.4931 cm} x{3.4839 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Chromatin remodelling}}  \tn
% Row 0
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{\emph{Heterochromatin}} & Tightly wound DNA around histones. \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{Eurochromatin}} & Loosely wound DNA. RNA polymerase can only access genes when DNA is eurochromatin. \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 3)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{Chromatin is a DNA-protein complex. Also note the dark green boxes will be related to {\bf{transcriptional control}}.}  \tn 
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\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Eurochromatin v. Heterochromatin}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\vspace{1px}\centerline{\includegraphics[width=5.1cm]{/web/www.cheatography.com/public/uploads/anais-pe_1717609030_Euchromatin-Heterochromatin-USMLE.png}}} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{2.18988 cm} x{2.78712 cm} }
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\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Histone modification}}  \tn
% Row 0
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{\emph{Acetylation / Phosphorylation}} & Lowers the positive charge of histones, so DNA is looser and genes can be transcribed. \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 4)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{Methylation}} & Makes histones more hydrophobic so DNA is wound tighter. Genes cannot be transcribed. \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 4)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{DNA is negatively charged and histones are positively charged, which is how they attract. Changing charges will change the attraction.}  \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Operons - Lac Operon}}  \tn
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\mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\vspace{1px}\centerline{\includegraphics[width=5.1cm]{/web/www.cheatography.com/public/uploads/anais-pe_1717610640_Lac-Operon-Structure.png}}} \tn 
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\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
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\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Lac Operon}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{An operon is a group of genes under control of the same regulatory mechanism -{}-\textgreater{} switch genes in and off depending on environment. \newline % Row Count 3 (+ 3)
Lac Operon -{}-\textgreater{} digests lactose if glucose concentration is low in E. Coli. \newline % Row Count 5 (+ 2)
In the presence of glucose, a regulatory genes produces repressor proteins which bind to the operator so RNA polymerase cannot bind and read genes. \newline % Row Count 8 (+ 3)
In the presence of lactose, lactose binds to the repressor protein, changing its shape so it no longer binds to the operator and the structural genes that code for lactose-digesting enzymes can be transcribed. \newline % Row Count 13 (+ 5)
cAMP acts as a secondary messenger. It speeds up the transcriptional of lactose genes if glucose is low.% Row Count 16 (+ 3)
} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
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\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.44333 cm} x{3.53367 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Post-transcriptional control}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{RNA processing}} & Transcriptional makes pre-mRNA and transforms it in mature mRNA. Once DNA has been transcribed, introns are removed from the pre-mRNA. \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 5)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{RNA editing}} & Change in base sequence to make different proteins (deletion, addition...). \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 3)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.69218 cm} x{3.28482 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Translational control}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{Degradation of mRNA}} & Higher resistance of mRNA = longer lasting in the cytoplasm so higher quantity of protein synthesis. \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 4)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{Inhibitory proteins}} & Prevent binding to ribosomes. \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 2)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{Initiation factors}} & Aid binding to ribosomes. \tn 
% Row Count 8 (+ 2)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{Protein kinases}} & Adds phosphate group to protein, changing tertiary structure and function. Many proteins activated by phosphorylation, important for cell regulation. \tn 
% Row Count 14 (+ 6)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Post-translational control}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Addition of non-protein group} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Modifying amino acids + bonds} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Folding / shortening of proteins} \tn 
% Row Count 3 (+ 1)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Modification by cAMP (e.g. Lac operon)} \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Homeobox gene}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Regulatory genes that code for a homeodomain protein which switches genes on and off.} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Code for body plan - basic layout of animals, fungi and plants.} \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 2)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Highly conserved across each species.} \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 1)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{180 base pairs long.} \tn 
% Row Count 6 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Hox genes}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Homeobox gene only present in animals.} \tn 
% Row Count 1 (+ 1)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Codes for correct placement of body parts.} \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 1)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{Found in gene clusters (4 in mammals with 39 Hox genes divided in 4 clustered in humans).} \tn 
% Row Count 4 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.14471 cm} x{3.83229 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Body plans}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{Body plans}} & The way the body is arranged. \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{Somites}} & Segments in embryo from which individual vertebrae develop. Hox genes in the mouth area will code for mouthparts, in the thorax for arm placement... \tn 
% Row Count 7 (+ 5)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{Symmetry}} & Radial e.g. in jellyfish \tn 
% Row Count 9 (+ 2)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
 & Bilateral e.g. humans \tn 
% Row Count 10 (+ 1)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
 & None e.g. sponges \tn 
% Row Count 11 (+ 1)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
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\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{x{1.09494 cm} x{3.88206 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{2}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Mitosis and apoptosis}}  \tn
% Row 0
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
{\emph{Mitosis}} & Increase number of cells for growth \tn 
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
\SetRowColor{white}
{\emph{Apoptosis}} & Programmed cell death to remove unwanted tissue (e.g. webbing between fingers in womb). \tn 
% Row Count 5 (+ 3)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}--}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}

\begin{tabularx}{5.377cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{x{5.377cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Apoptosis}}  \tn
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{1}{p{5.377cm}}{\vspace{1px}\centerline{\includegraphics[width=5.1cm]{/web/www.cheatography.com/public/uploads/anais-pe_1717617469_cell-0909-2.jpg}}} \tn 
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}


% That's all folks
\end{multicols*}

\end{document}